History of African Americans in Chicago

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The history of African Americans in Chicago or Black Chicagoans dates back to

The

The Black population in Chicago has been shrinking. Many Black Chicagoans have moved to the suburbs or Southern cities such as Atlanta, Charlotte, Dallas, Houston, and San Antonio.[7]^[8]

Chicago also has a foreign-born Black population. Many of the African immigrants in Chicago are from Ethiopia and Nigeria.^[9]

Jean Baptiste Point du Sable was a Haitian of French and African descent.^[10]

Although du Sable's settlement was established in the 1780s, African Americans would only become established as a community in the 1840s, with the population reaching 1,000 by 1860. Much of this population consisted of escaped slaves from the Upper South. Following the end of Reconstruction in 1877, African Americans flowed from the Deep South into Chicago, raising the population from approximately 4,000 in 1870 to 15,000 in 1890.^[11]

In 1853, John A. Logan helped pass a law to prohibit all African Americans, including freedmen, from settling in the state. However, in 1865, the state repealed its "Black Laws" and became the first to ratify the 13th Amendment, partly due to the efforts of John and Mary Jones, a prominent and wealthy activist couple.^[12]

Especially after the Civil War, Illinois had some of the most progressive anti-discrimination legislation in the nation.^[13] School segregation was first outlawed in 1874, and segregation in public accommodations was first outlawed in 1885.^[13] In 1870, Illinois extended voting rights to African-American men for the first time, and in 1871, John Jones, a tailor and Underground Railroad station manager who successfully lobbied for the repeal of the state's Black Laws, became the first African-American elected official in the state, serving as a member of the Cook County Commission. By 1879, John W. E. Thomas of Chicago became the first African American elected to the Illinois General Assembly, beginning the longest uninterrupted run of African-American representation in any state legislature in U.S. history. After the Great Chicago Fire, Chicago mayor Joseph Medill appointed the city's first Black fire company of nine men and the first Black police officer.

Chicago was the "Promised Land" to Black Southerners. 500,000 African Americans moved to Chicago.^[14]

As the 20th century began, southern states succeeded in passing new constitutions and laws that

The increasingly large Black population in Chicago (40,000 in 1910, and 278,000 in 1940^[4]) faced some of the same discrimination as they had in the South.^[24] It was hard for many Blacks to find jobs and find decent places to live because of the competition for housing among different ethnic groups at a time when the city was expanding in population so dramatically. At the same time that Blacks moved from the South in the Great Migration, Chicago had recently received hundreds of thousands of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe. The groups competed with each other for working-class wages.

Though other techniques to maintain

The Supreme Court of the United States in Shelley v. Kraemer ruled in 1948 that racially restrictive covenants were unconstitutional, but this did not quickly solve Blacks' problems with finding adequate housing.^[13] Homeowners' associations discouraged members from selling to Black families, thus maintaining residential segregation.^[13] European immigrants and their descendants competed with African Americans for limited affordable housing, and those who didn't get the house lived on the streets.

In a succession common to most cities, many middle and upper-class Whites were the first to move out of the city to new housing, aided by new commuter rail lines and the construction of new highway systems. Later arrivals, ethnic Whites and African-American families occupied the older housing behind them. The White residents who had been in the city longest were the ones most likely to move to the newer, most expensive housing, as they could afford it. After 1945, the early White residents (many Irish immigrants and their descendants) on the

Between 1900 and 1910, the African-American population rose rapidly in Chicago. White hostility and population growth combined to create the ghetto on the South Side. Nearby were areas dominated by ethnic Irish, who were especially territorial in defending against incursions into their areas by any other groups.[4] Most of this large population was composed of migrants.^[4] In 1910 more than 75 percent of Blacks lived in predominantly Black sections of the city.^[4] The eight or nine neighborhoods that had been set as areas of Black settlement in 1900 remained the core of the Chicago African-American community. The Black Belt slowly expanded as African Americans, despite facing violence and restrictive covenants, pushed forward into new neighborhoods.^[26] As the population grew, African Americans became more confined to a delineated area, instead of spreading throughout the city. When Blacks moved into mixed neighborhoods, ethnic White hostility grew. After fighting over the area, often Whites left the area to be dominated by Blacks. This is one of the reasons the Black belt region started.

The Black Belt of Chicago was the chain of neighborhoods on the

Immigration to Chicago was another pressure of overcrowding, as primarily lower-class newcomers from rural Europe also sought cheap housing and working class jobs. More and more people tried to fit into converted "kitchenette" and basement apartments. Living conditions in the Black Belt resembled conditions in the West Side ghetto or in the stockyards district.^[16] Although there were decent homes in the Negro sections, the core of the Black Belt was a slum. A 1934 census estimated that Black households contained 6.8 people on average, whereas White households contained 4.7.^[30] Many Blacks lived in apartments that lacked plumbing, with only one bathroom for each floor.^[30] With the buildings so overcrowded, building inspections and garbage collection were below the minimum mandatory requirements for healthy sanitation. This unhealthiness increased the threat of disease. From 1940 to 1960, the infant death rate in the Black Belt was 16% higher than the rest of the city.^[30]

Crime in African-American neighborhoods was a low priority to the police. Associated with problems of poverty and southern culture, rates of violence and homicide were high. Some women resorted to prostitution to survive. Both low life and middle-class strivers were concentrated in a small area.^[4]

In 1946, the Chicago Housing Authority (CHA) tried to ease the pressure in the overcrowded ghettos and proposed to put public housing sites in less congested areas in the city. The White residents did not take to this very well, so city politicians forced the CHA to keep the status quo and develop high rise projects in the Black Belt and on the West Side. Some of these became notorious failures. As industrial restructuring in the 1950s and later led to massive job losses, residents changed from working-class families to poor families on welfare.^[4]

As of May 2016 violence within some Chicago neighborhoods prompted Black middle-class people to move to the suburbs.^[31]

Between 1916 and 1920, almost 50,000 Black Southerners moved to Chicago,^[16] which profoundly shaped the city's development. Growth increased even more rapidly after 1940. In particular, the new citizens caused the growth of local churches, businesses and community organizations. A new musical culture arose, fed by all the traditions along the Mississippi River. The population continued to increase with new migrants, with the most arriving after 1940.

The Black arts community in Chicago was especially vibrant. Early Vaudeville performers and entrepreneurs like the Griffin Sisters created and managed venues for Black performers in the 1910s. The Pekin Theater, built in 1905, was called "The Cradle of Negro Drama in the United States."^[32] The 1920s were the height of the Jazz Age, but music continued as the heart of the community for decades. Nationally renowned musicians rose within the Chicago world. Along the Stroll, a bright-light district on State Street, jazz greats like Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Cab Calloway, Bessie Smith and Ethel Waters headlined at nightspots including the Deluxe Cafe.

The literary creation of Black Chicago residents from 1925 to 1950 was also prolific, and the city's

In Chicago, Black writers turned away from the folk traditions embraced by Harlem Renaissance writers, instead adopting a grittier, uncompromising style of "literary naturalism" to depict life in the urban ghetto. Furthermore, as compared with the Harlem Renaissance, the Chicago Black Renaissance blossomed without the involvement of well-known intellectuals such as W.E.B Du Bois and without the oftentimes heavy-handed role played by White entrepreneurs and benefactors.^[34] In that sense, the Chicago Black Renaissance was substantially more public-facing and approachable to the working class. Indeed, several artists from this area were significantly influenced by Marxist principles and infused their works with a sense of the class-consciousness that the Harlem Renaissance lacked. The classic Black Metropolis, written by St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Jr., exemplified the style of the Chicago writers. Today it remains the most detailed portrayal of Black Chicago in the 1930s and 1940s.

Around the same time, the Nation of Islam (NOI) moved its headquarters to Chicago from Detroit. From their center on the South Side, Elijah Muhammad and his wife, Clara Muhammad, organized the most well-known and arguably most influential religious movement amongst Black Americans in the 20th century.^[35] Muhammad's message appealed to Black Chicagoans of the 1930s and 1940s who were disillusioned with traditional Protestantism and energized by his claim that African Americans would soon be restored to freedom. In 1960, Malcolm X, the organization's national spokesperson, founded the newspaper Mr. Muhammad Speaks, which quickly ascended into popularity for a brief period with more than 60,000 newspapers in circulation nationwide.^[35]

From 2008 to the present, the West Side Historical Society under the guidance of Rickie P. Brown Sr. began to document the rich history of the West Side of Chicago. Their research provided proof of the Austin community having the largest population of Blacks in the city of Chicago. This proved that the largest population of Blacks are on its west side, when factoring in the Near West Side, North Lawndale, West Humboldt Park, Garfield Park, and Austin communities as well. Their efforts to build a museum on the west side and continuing to bring awareness to Juneteenth as a national holiday was rewarded with a proclamation in 2011 by Governor Pat Quinn.^[36]

Chicago's Black population developed a class structure, composed of a large number of domestic workers and other manual laborers, along with a small, but growing, contingent of middle-and-upper-class business and professional elites. In 1929, Black Chicagoans gained access to city jobs, and expanded their professional class. Fighting job discrimination was a constant battle for African Americans in Chicago, as foremen in various companies restricted the advancement of Black workers, which often kept them from earning higher wages.^[28] In the mid-20th century, Blacks began slowly moving up to better positions in the work force.^[4]

The migration expanded the market for African-American business. According to Allen Spear, "The most notable breakthrough in Black business came in the insurance field."^[16] There were four major Black insurance companies founded in Chicago. Additionally, the African-American market on State Street during this time consisted of barber shops, restaurants, pool rooms, saloons, and beauty salons. African Americans used these trades to build their own communities. These shops gave the Blacks a chance to establish their families, earn money, and become an active part of the community.

Widely credited as Chicago's first Black banker, Jesse Binga came to Chicago as a Pullman porter before opening the city's first Black bank, Binga Bank, in 1908 and amassing significant wealth.^[37] Binga would go on to spearhead an integration campaign on the South Side that put him at odds with the White establishment, with some even attributing the lethal damage of the 1919 race riots in part to the radical aversion to his efforts.

With a growing base and strong leadership in machine politics, Blacks began to win elective office in local and state government. The first Blacks had been elected to office in Chicago in the late 19th century, decades before the Great Migrations.

Barack Obama moved from the Senate to the White House in 2008.[39]

In the February 22, 1983, the democrats were split three ways. On the North and Northwest Sides, the incumbent mayor

Epton's campaign referred to, among other things, Washington's conviction for failure to file income tax returns (he had paid the taxes, but had not filed a return). Washington, on the other hand, stressed reforming the Chicago patronage system and the need for a jobs program in a tight economy. In the April 12, 1983, mayoral general election, Washington defeated Epton by 3.7%, 51.7% to 48.0%, to become mayor of Chicago.[41] Washington was sworn in as mayor on April 29, 1983, and resigned his Congressional seat the following day.^[42]

In the late 19th and early 20th century many prominent African Americans were Chicago residents, including Republican and later Democratic congressman

Chicago also saw some of the first instances of Black labor organization in the country. In 1909, tired of poor working conditions, porters for the Pullman Train Company began their first attempts to unionize but encountered heavy opposition. Later, Black Pullman porters organized secretively to the Brotherhood of the Sleeping Car Porters in 1925.[45]

During the Bronzeville Renaissance period, Chicago hosted many of the nation's leading Black artists, writers, and performers.

After long efforts, in the late 1930s, workers organized across racial lines to form the United Meatpacking Workers of America. By then, the majority of workers in Chicago's plants were Black, but they succeeded in creating an interracial organizing committee. It succeeded in organizing unions both in Chicago and Omaha, Nebraska, the city with the second largest meatpacking industry. This union belonged to the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which was more progressive than the American Federation of Labor. They succeeded in lifting segregation of job positions. For a time, workers achieved living wages and other benefits, leading to blue collar middle-class life for decades. Some Blacks were also able to move up the ranks to supervisory and management positions. The CIO also succeeded in organizing Chicago's steel industry.^[46]

After peaking at 1.2 million residents in 1980, the Black population of Chicago has entered a steady decline.^[47] This decline has coincided with a growing Latino population which is increasingly pushing for greater political representation. The 2020 Census results showed that the Black population of Chicago had slipped to 788,000, while the Latino population had risen to 820,000, marking the first census in which Latino residents outnumbered Black residents in Chicago - with potentially major implications for Black political power in the city as formerly comfortably Black-majority wards are diversifying and consolidating.^[48]

A 2021 report from the Chicago Tribune stated that thousands of Black families have left Chicago in the past decade, lowering the Black population by about 10%.^[49] Politico reported that Chicago's once wealthy Black community has dramatically declined with the shuttering of many Black-owned companies.^[50] Among the 10 US cities with the largest Black populations in 2000, Chicago saw the second highest decline after Detroit, with a net departure of 261,763 Black residents from 2000-2020.^[47] The magnitude of Black population outflows corresponds strongly with neighborhood homicide rates, with the Austin community area on the city's Far West Side experiencing the largest drop.^[47] Part of the decline has also been attributed to the destruction of public housing at the turn of the century, with the Chicago Housing Authority and city government failing to provide sufficient affordable housing for the evicted residents, thus causing many public housing residents to be displaced to unfamiliar neighborhoods and destabilizing middle-class areas. Additionally, the widely-criticized closure of 50 CPS schools - primarily in Black neighborhoods - under the mayoral administration of Rahm Emanuel further exacerbated the population spiral.

Many Blacks leaving Chicago are now moving to outlying suburbs, primarily to the south and west of the city in Cook County, or to the east in Northwest Indiana. Indeed, while Chicago lost more than 260,000 Black residents from 2000-2020, the surrounding suburbs gained about 125,000.

In recent years, the City has adopted measures to try to curtail Black population loss. In 2019, for example, then-mayor Lori Lightfoot announced the Invest South/West initiative to bring $750 million into 10 underserved communities.[47] Other redevelopment efforts have focused along the southern lakefront, with the Obama Presidential Center construction bringing jobs - but also potentially gentrification - to the Woodlawn neighborhood. And, bucking the trend of Black population declines, communities along the southern lakefront including Bronzeville, Hyde Park, Woodlawn, and South Shore all recorded population gains between 2010 and 2020, with a significant portion of the influx driven by college-educated Black residents.^[53] Notably in Bronzeville, demographers found two of just 193 census tracts nationally that achieved a significant decrease in poverty with minimal displacement of existing populations between 2010 and 2015 - attributed in large part to the abundance of vacant lots which have created opportunities for new construction.^[54] This area holds potential for continued future growth even as the Black population of the city as a whole continues to decline.

The influx of Black families in the Chicago suburbs has largely mirrored their spatial distribution in the city, with the majority of predominantly-Black suburbs located to the south and west of Chicago.^[55] While a smaller share of the Black population than communities in Atlanta or Washington, there is a noticeable Black middle class presence in the south suburbs of Cook County. A report from the National Association of Real Estate Brokers (NAREB) indicated that between 2012-2016, 5 of the top 10 municipalities nationwide (with at least 500 Black households) registering the highest Black homeownership rates were Chicago suburbs - including Olympia Fields (98%), South Holland (85%), Flossmoor (83%), Matteson (80%), and Lynwood (80%).^[56] The report notes that the majority of these suburbs were majority-White as recently as 1990.

Black people in Chicago are more likely to be victims of homicide.^[57]

Foreign born Blacks makeup 4% of Chicago's Black population.^[58] In the 1970s East Africans from Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Somalia formed a small enclave in the Edgewater and Uptown neighborhoods on Chicago's North Side, which has since been enriched by new arrivals from West Africa, including Nigerians and Ghanaians.^[59]

Around 4,500 Ethiopians lived in Chicago in 2000, with the population declining modestly to 3,875 in 2020.^[60][61]

As of 2020, there were 2,977 Chicagoans with at least partial Ghanaian ancestry.^[61]

Nigerian people constitute the city's largest African community, with 12,601 Nigerians in the city as of the 2020 census and an estimated number in excess of 30,000 living in the broader metropolitan region.^[62][61]

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

• African Americans in New York City
• History of African Americans in Philadelphia
• History of African Americans in Detroit
• History of African Americans in Boston
• African Americans in Baltimore
• Chicago Black Renaissance
• Chicago State University
• Chicago Race Riot of 1919
• Great Migration (African American)
• Second Great Migration (African American)
• History of Chicago
• Political history of Chicago
• Demographics of Chicago
• Ethnic groups in Chicago
• George Floyd protests in Chicago
• Puerto Ricans in Chicago
• Mexicans in Chicago
• Romani people in Chicago
• Italians in Chicago
• Koreans in Chicago
• Germans in Chicago
• Czechs in Chicago
• Bosnians in Chicago
• Swedes in Chicago
• Japanese in Chicago
• Indians in Chicago
• History of the Jews in Chicago
• Luxembourgers in Chicago
• Poles in Chicago

Further reading

• Anderson, Alan B., and George W. Pickering. Confronting the Color Line: The Broken Promise of Civil Rights Movements in Chicago (U of Georgia Press, 1986).
• Balto, Simon. Occupied Territory: Policing Black Chicago from Red Summer to Black Power (UNC Press Books, 2019).
• Best, Wallace. "Black Belt," in Encyclopedia of Chicago, 2007; p. 140.
• Best, Wallace D.
  ISBN 978-0-6911-3375-1, 2013). Info page
  .
• Blair, Cynthia M. I've got to make my livin': Black women's sex work in turn-of-the-century Chicago (U of Chicago Press, 2018); early 1900s
• Bowly, Devereaux, Jr. The Poorhouse: Subsidized Housing in Chicago, 1895–1976 (Southern Illinois UP, 1978).
• Branch, Taylor. Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1964–1965 (1998). includes Martin Luther King'r ole in Chicago
• ISBN 978-0-7595-2427-9
  )
• Coit, Jonathan S., "'Our Changed Attitude': Armed Defense and the New Negro in the 1919 Chicago Race Riot", Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 11 (April 2012), 225–56.
• Danns, Dionne. "Chicago High School Students' Movement For Quality Public Education, 1966-1971" (PDF).
  Journal of African American History
  : 138–150.
• Danns, Dionne. "Policy implications for school desegregation and school choice in Chicago." Urban Review 50 (2018): 584-603.
• Dolinar, Brian (ed.), The Negro in Illinois. The WPA Papers, University of Chicago Press, cloth: 2013,
  ISBN 978-0-252-08093-7: 2015. Produced by a special division of the Illinois Writers' Project, part of the Federal Writers' Project, one of President Roosevelt's Works Progress Administration programs of the 1930s, with Black writers living in Chicago during the 1930s, including Richard Wright, Margaret Walker, Katherine Dunham, Fenton Johnson, Frank Yerby, and Richard Durham
  .
• Drake, St. Clair, and Horace Cayton. Black Metropolis: A Study in Negro Life in a Northern City (1945) a famous scholarly study. online
• Frady, Marshall. Jesse: The Life and Pilgrimage of Jesse Jackson (1996)
• Fremon, David. Chicago Politics Ward by Ward (Indiana University Press, 1988).
• Garrow, David J. ed. Chicago 1966: Open Housing Marches, Summit Negotiations, and Operation Breadbasket (1989).
• Garb, Margaret. Freedom's Ballot: African American Political Struggles in Chicago from Abolition to the Great Migration. (University of Chicago Press, 2014,
  ISBN 978-0-2261-3590-8
  )
• Gordon, Rita Werner. "The change in the political alignment of Chicago's Negroes during the New Deal."
  Journal of American History
  56.3 (1969): 584-603.
• Gosnell, Harold F. "The Chicago 'Black belt' as a political battleground." American Journal of Sociology 39.3 (1933): 329-341.
• Gosnell, Harold F. Negro Politicians; The Rise of Negro Politics in Chicago (University of Chicago Press. 1935). online; also see online review
• Green, Adam. Selling the Race: Culture, Community, and Black Chicago, 1940-1955. (University of Chicago Press, 2009,
  ISBN 978-0-2263-0640-7
  )
• Grimshaw, William J. Bitter Fruit: Black Politics and the Chicago Machine, 1931–1991 (University of Chicago Press, 1992).
• Grossman, James R.
  Land of hope: Chicago, Black southerners, and the great migration
  (University of Chicago Press, 1991)
• Halpern, Rick. Down on the Killing Floor: Black and White Workers in Chicago's Packinghouses, 1904-54 (University of Illinois Press, 1997).
• Helgeson, Jeffrey. Crucibles of Black Empowerment: Chicago's Neighborhood Politics from the New Deal to Harold Washington. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014,
  ISBN 978-0-2261-3069-9
  .
• Hirsch, Arnold Richard. Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago 1940-1960. (U of Chicago Press, 1998,
  ISBN 978-0-2263-4244-3
  )
• Hutchison, Ray. "Where is the Chicago Ghetto?." in The Ghetto (Routledge, 2018) pp. 293–326.
• Kenney, William Howland. Chicago jazz: A cultural history, 1904-1930 (Oxford University Press, 1993)
• Kimble Jr., Lionel. A New Deal for Bronzeville: Housing, Employment, and Civil Rights in Black Chicago, 1935–1955 (Southern Illinois University Press, 2015,
  ISBN 978-0-8093-3426-1
  ). xiv, 200 pp.
• Kleppner, Paul. Chicago Divided: The Making of a Black Mayor (Northern Illinois University Press, 1985); 1983 election of Harold Washington
• Knupfer, Anne Meis. "'Toward a Tenderer Humanity and a Nobler Womanhood': African-American Women's Clubs in Chicago, 1890 to 1920." Journal of Women's History 7#3 (1995): 58–76.
• Knupfer, Anne Meis. The Chicago Black Renaissance and women's activism (U of Illinois Press, 2023.
• Lemann, Nicholas. The Promised Land: The Great Migration and How It Changed America (1991).
• Logan, John R., Weiwei Zhang, and Miao David Chunyu. "Emergent ghettos: Black neighborhoods in New York and Chicago, 1880–1940." American Journal of Sociology 120.4 (2015): 1055-1094. online
• McClelland, Ted. Young Mr. Obama: Chicago and the making of a Black president (2010) online
• McGreevy, John T. Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the TwentiethCentury Urban North (University of Chicago Press, 1996). excerpt
• Manning, Christopher. "African Americans," in Encyclopedia of Chicago. (2007); p. 27+.
• Naqvi, S. Kaazim. Chicago Muslims and the Transformation of American Islam: Immigrants, African Americans, and the Building of the American Ummah (Rowman & Littlefield, 2019).
• Philpott, Thomas Lee. The Slum and the Ghetto: Neighborhood Deterioration and Middle Class Reform, Chicago, 1880–1930 (Oxford UP, 1978).
• Pickering, George W. Confronting the Color Line: The Broken Promise of the Civil Rights Movement in Chicago (U of Georgia Press, 1986).
• Pinderhughes, Dianne Marie. Race and ethnicity in Chicago politics: A reexamination of pluralist theory
  (U of Illinois Press, 1987)
• Reed, Christopher. The Chicago NAACP and the Rise of the Black Professional Leadership, 1910–1966 (Indiana University Press, 1997).
• ISBN 0-8050-2698-3
  )
• Rocksborough-Smith, Ian. Black public history in Chicago: Civil rights activism from World War II into the Cold War (U of Illinois Press, 2018).
• Rocksborough-Smith, Ian. "Margaret T.G. Burroughs and Black Public History in Cold War Chicago". The Black Scholar, (2011), Vol. 41(3), pp. 26–42.
• Schlabach, Elizabeth Schroeder. Dream Books and Gamblers: Black Women's Work in Chicago's Policy Game (U of Illinois Press, 2022).
• Smith, Preston H. Racial democracy and the Black metropolis: Housing policy in postwar Chicago (U of Minnesota Press, 2012).
• Smith, Preston H. "The Chicago School of Human Ecology and the Ideology of Black Civic Elites." in Renewing Black Intellectual History (Routledge, 2015) pp. 126–157.
• Spaulding, Norman W. History of Black oriented radio in Chicago, 1929-1963 (PhD disst. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1981.
• Spear, Allan H. Black Chicago: The making of a Negro ghetto, 1890–1920 (University of Chicago Press, 1967,
  ISBN 978-0-2267-6857-1
  ). widely cited scholqrship
• Spinney, Robert G. City of big shoulders: A history of Chicago (Cornell University Press, 2020), broad scholarly survey
• Street, Paul. "The 'Best Union Members': Class, Race, Culture, and Black Worker Militancy in Chicago's Stockyards during the 1930s." Journal of American Ethnic History (2000): 18-49. online
• Street, Paul. "The logic and limits of 'plant loyalty': Black workers, White labor, and corporate racial paternalism in Chicago's stockyards, 1916-1940." Journal of social history (1996): 659-681.online
• Todd-Breland, Elizabeth. A political education: Black politics and education reform in Chicago since the 1960s (UNC Press Books, 2018).

• Tuttle Jr, William M. "Labor conflict and racial violence: The Black worker in Chicago, 1894–1919." Labor History 10.3 (1969): 408–432.
• Tuttle, William M. Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (1970).
• Weems Jr, Robert E. The Merchant Prince of Black Chicago: Anthony Overton and the Building of a Financial Empire (U of Illinois Press, 2020).
• West, E. James. A House for the Struggle: The Black Press and the Built Environment in Chicago ( U of Illinois Press, 2022).

Primary sources

• The Chicago Commission on Race Relations. The Negro in Chicago. (Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 1922).
• Johnson, John H. Succeeding Against the Odds: The Autobiography of a Great American Businessman (1989) about John H. Johnson.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to African Americans in Chicago.

• African-American History Tour for the City of Chicago
• Chicago's Black Metropolis: Understanding History Through a Historic Place, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
• African Americans in Chicago
• Bosman, Julie; Heisler, Todd (16 February 2020). "Black Families Came to Chicago by the Thousands. Why Are They Leaving?". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
• Black population loss in Chicago greatcities.uic.edu
• Reed, Christopher (21 February 2022). "African Americans in Chicago". oxfordbibliographies.com. Retrieved 9 December 2023.