Indigenous peoples in Brazil
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Total population | |
---|---|
1,693,535 1% of the Brazilian population (2022 Census) North and Central-West | |
Languages | |
Indigenous languages, Portuguese | |
Religion | |
Originally traditional beliefs and animism. 61.1% Roman Catholic, 19.9% Protestant, 11% non-religious, 8% other beliefs.[2] Animist religions still widely practiced by isolated populations | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Other indigenous peoples of the Americas |
Indigenous peoples once comprised an estimated 2,000 tribes and nations inhabiting what is now the country of Brazil, before European contact around 1500 AD.
At the time of European contact, some of the indigenous peoples were traditionally semi-
The Indigenous population was decimated by European diseases, declining from a pre-Columbian high of 2 to 3 million to some 300,000 as of 1997[update], distributed among 200 tribes. By the 2022 IBGE census, 1,693,535 Brazilians classified themselves as Indigenous, and the same census registered 274 indigenous languages of 304 different indigenous ethnic groups.[3][4]
On 18 January 2007,
History
Origins
Questions about the original
Migration into the continents
Genetic studies
Y-chromosome DNA
An analysis of
Autosomal DNA
According to an
mtDNA
Another study, focused on mitochondrial DNA (
Linguistic comparison with Siberia
Linguistic studies have backed up genetic studies, with ancient patterns having been found between the languages spoken in Siberia and those spoken in the Americas.[12]
The Oceanic component in the Amazon region
Two 2015 autosomal DNA genetic studies confirmed the Siberian origins of the Natives of the Americas. However an ancient signal of shared ancestry with the
Archaeological remains
Brazilian native people, unlike those in
The most conspicuous remains of these societies are very large mounds of discarded shellfish (sambaquis) found in some coastal sites which were continuously inhabited for over 5,000 years; and the substantial "black earth" (terra preta) deposits in several places along the Amazon, which are believed to be ancient garbage dumps (middens). Recent excavations of such deposits in the middle and upper course of the Amazon have uncovered remains of some very large settlements, containing tens of thousands of homes, indicating a complex social and economic structure.[16]
Studies of the wear patterns of the prehistoric inhabitants of coastal Brazil found that the surfaces of
Marajoara culture
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The extent, level of complexity, and resource interactions of the Marajoara culture have been disputed. Working in the 1950s in some of her earliest research, American Betty Meggers suggested that the society migrated from the Andes and settled on the island. Many researchers believed that the Andes were populated by Paleoindian migrants from North America who gradually moved south after being hunters on the plains.
In the 1980s, another American archeologist, Anna Curtenius Roosevelt, led excavations and geophysical surveys of the mound Teso dos Bichos. She concluded that the society that constructed the mounds originated on the island itself.[20]
The pre-Columbian culture of Marajó may have developed
Xinguano Civilisation
The Xingu peoples built large settlements connected by roads and bridges, often bearing moats. The apex of their development was between 1200 CE to 1600 CE, their population inflating to the tens of thousands.[21]
Native people after the European colonisation
Distribution
On the eve of the
Although the coastal Tupi were broken down into sub-tribes, frequently hostile to each other, they were culturally and linguistically homogeneous. The fact that the early Europeans encountered practically the same people and language all along the Brazilian coast greatly simplified early communication and interaction.
Coastal Sequence c. 1500 (north to south):[22]
- Tupinambá (Tupi, from the Amazon delta to Maranhão)
- São Luis Island (south Maranhão) to the mouth of the Acaraú River in north Ceará; French traders cultivated an alliance with them)
- Itamaracáisland, covering the modern states of southern Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte and Paraíba.)
- Tabajara (tiny Tupi tribe between Itamaracá island and Paraíba River; neighbors and frequent victims of the Potiguara)
- Caeté (Tupi group in Pernambuco and Alagoas, ranged from Paraíba River to the São Francisco River; after killing and eating a Portuguese bishop, they were subjected to Portuguese extermination raids and the remnant pushed into the Pará interior)
- Tupinambá again (Tupi par excellence, ranged from the São Francisco River to the Bay of All Saints, population estimated as high as 100,000; hosted Portuguese castaway Caramuru)
- Tupiniquim (Tupi, covered the Bahian discovery coast, from around Camamu to São Mateus River; these were the first indigenous people encountered by the Portuguese, having met the landing of captain Pedro Álvares Cabral in April 1500)
- Aimoré (Tapuia (Jê) tribe; concentrated on a sliver of coast in modern Espírito Santostate)
- Goitacá (Tapuia tribe; once dominated the coast from the São Mateus River (in Espírito Santo state) down to the Paraíba do Sul River (in Rio de Janeirostate); hunter-gatherers and fishermen, they were a shy people that avoided all contact with foreigners; estimated at 12,000; they had a fearsome reputation and were eventually annihilated by European colonists)
- Temiminó (small Tupi tribe, centered on Governador Island in Guanabara Bay; frequently at war with the Tamoio around them)
- Tamoio (Tupi, an old branch of the Tupinambá, ranged from the western edge of Guanabara Bay to Ilha Grande)
- Tupinambá again (Tupi, indistinct from the Tamoio. Inhabited the Paulist coast, from Ilha Grande to Santos; main enemies of the Tupiniquim to their west. Numbered between six and ten thousand).
- Tupiniquim again (Tupi, on the São Paulo coast from Santos/Bertioga down to Cananéia; aggressive expansionists, they were recent arrivals imposing themselves on the Paulist coast and the Piratininga plateau at the expense of older Tupinambá and Carijó neighbors; hosted Portuguese castaways João Ramalho ('Tamarutaca') and António Rodrigues in the early 1500s; the Tupiniquim were the first formal allies of the Portuguese colonists, helped establish the Portuguese Captaincy of São Vicente in the 1530s; sometimes called "Guaianá" in old Portuguese chronicles, a Tupi term meaning "friendly" or "allied")
- Carijó (Guarani (Tupi) tribe, ranged from Cananeia all the way down to Lagoa dos Patos (in Rio Grande do Sul state); victims of the Tupiniquim and early European slavers; they hosted the mysterious degredado known as the 'Bachelor of Cananeia')
- Charrúa (Tapuia (Jê) tribe in modern Uruguay coast, with an aggressive reputation against intruders; killed Juan Díaz de Solís in 1516)
With the exception of the
Behind these coasts, the interior of Brazil was dominated primarily by Tapuia (Jê) people, although significant sections of the interior (notably the upper reaches of the Xingu, Teles Pires and Juruena Rivers – the area now covered roughly by modern Mato Grosso state) were the original pre-migration Tupi-Guarani homelands. Besides the Tupi and Tapuia, it is common to identify two other indigenous mega-groups in the interior: the Caribs, who inhabited much of what is now northwestern Brazil, including both shores of the Amazon River up to the delta and the Nuaraque group, whose constituent tribes inhabited several areas, including most of the upper Amazon (west of what is now Manaus) and also significant pockets in modern Amapá and Roraima states.
The names by which the different Tupi tribes were recorded by Portuguese and French authors of the 16th century are poorly understood. Most do not seem to be proper names, but descriptions of relationship, usually familial – e.g. tupi means "first father", tupinambá means "relatives of the ancestors", tupiniquim means "side-neighbors", tamoio means "grandfather", temiminó means "grandson", tabajara means "in-laws" and so on.[23] Some etymologists believe these names reflect the ordering of the migration waves of Tupi people from the interior to the coasts, e.g. first Tupi wave to reach the coast being the "grandfathers" (Tamoio), soon joined by the "relatives of the ancients" (Tupinamba), by which it could mean relatives of the Tamoio, or a Tamoio term to refer to relatives of the old Tupi back in the upper Amazon basin. The "grandsons" (Temiminó) might be a splinter. The "side-neighbors" (Tupiniquim) meant perhaps recent arrivals, still trying to jostle their way in. However, by 1870 the Tupi tribes' population had declined to 250,000 indigenous people and by 1890 had diminished to an approximate 100,000.
Native Brazilian Population in Northeast Coast (Dutch estimates)[24] | |
---|---|
Period | Total |
1540 | +100,000 |
1640 | 9,000 |
First contacts
When the
In "Histoire des découvertes et conquestes des Portugais dans le Nouveau Monde",[25] Lafiatau described the natives as people who wore no clothing but rather painted their whole bodies with red. Their ears, noses, lips and cheeks were pierced. The men would shave the front, the top of the head and over the ears, while the women would typically wear their hair loose or in braids. Both men and women would accessorize themselves with noisy porcelain collars and bracelets, feathers, and dried fruits. He describes the ritualistic nature of how they practiced cannibalism, and he even mentions the importance of the role of women in a household.
Before the arrival of the Europeans, the territory of current-day Brazil had an estimated population of between 1 and 11.25 million inhabitants.
By 1800, the population of Colonial Brazil had reached approximately 2.33 million, among whom only approximately 174,900 were indigenous. By 1850, that number had dwindled to an estimated 78,400 people, out of 5.8 million.[28]
Slavery and the bandeiras
The mutual feeling of wonderment and a good relationship was to end in the succeeding years. The Portuguese
Intending to profit from the
The Jesuits
Jesuit priests such as fathers
By the middle of the 16th century, Catholic Jesuit priests, at the behest of Portugal's monarchy, had established missions throughout the country's colonies. They worked to both Europeanize them and convert them to Catholicism. Some historians argue that the Jesuits provided a period of relative stability for the Amerindians.[29] Indeed, the Jesuits argued against using indigenous Brazilians for slave labour.[31] However, the Jesuits still contributed to European imperialism. Many historians regard Jesuit involvement to be an ethnocide of indigenous culture[32] where the Jesuits attempted to 'Europeanise' the Indigenous Peoples of Brazil.
In the mid-1770s, the indigenous peoples' fragile co-existence with the colonists was again threatened. Because of a complex diplomatic web between Portugal, Spain and the Vatican, the Jesuits were expelled from Brazil and the missions were confiscated and sold.[33]
Wars
A number of wars between several tribes, such as the
There are various documented accounts of smallpox being knowingly used as a biological weapon by New Brazilian villagers that wanted to get rid of nearby Amerindian tribes (not always aggressive ones). The most "classical", according to Anthropologist, Mércio Pereira Gomes, happened in Caxias, in south Maranhão, where local farmers, wanting more land to extend their cattle farms, gave clothing owned by ill villagers (that normally would be burned to prevent further infection) to the Timbira. The clothing infected the entire tribe, and they had neither immunity nor cure. Similar things happened in other villages throughout South America.[34]
The rubber trade
The 1840s brought trade and wealth to the
The legacy of Cândido Rondon
In the 20th century, the Brazilian Government adopted a more humanitarian attitude and offered official protection to the indigenous people, including the establishment of the first indigenous reserves. Fortune brightened for the Amerindians around the turn of the 20th century when
Rondon, who died in 1958, is a national hero in Brazil. The Brazilian state of Rondônia is named after him.
SPI failure and FUNAI
After Rondon's pioneering work, the SPI was turned over to bureaucrats and military officers and its work declined after 1957. The new officials did not share Rondon's deep commitment to the Amerindians. SPI sought to address tribal issues by transforming the tribes into mainstream Brazilian society. The lure of reservation riches enticed cattle ranchers and settlers to continue their assault on Amerindians' lands – and the SPI eased the way. Between 1900 and 1967, an estimated 98 indigenous tribes were wiped out.[citation needed]
Mostly due to the efforts of the Villas-Bôas brothers, Brazil's first Indian reserve, the Xingu National Park, was established by the Federal Government in 1961.
During the social and political upheaval in the 1960s, reports of mistreatment of Amerindians increasingly reached
The military government
Also in 1964, in a seismic political shift, the Brazilian military took control of the government and abolished all existing political parties, creating a two-party system. For the next two decades, Brazil was ruled by a series of generals. The country's mantra was "Brazil, the Country of the Future," which the military government used as justification for a giant push into the Amazon to exploit its resources, thereby beginning to transform Brazil into one of the leading economies of the world. Construction began on a transcontinental highway across the Amazon basin, aimed to encourage migration to the Amazon and to open up the region to more trade. With funding from World Bank, thousands of square miles of forest were cleared without regard for reservation status. After the highway projects came giant hydroelectric projects, then swaths of forest were cleared for cattle ranches. As a result, reservation lands suffered massive deforestation and flooding. The public works projects attracted very few migrants, but those few – and largely poor – settlers brought new diseases that further devastated the Amerindian population.
Contemporary situation
The
Much of the language has been incorporated into the official Brazilian Portuguese language. For example, 'Carioca' the word used to describe people born in the city of Rio de Janeiro, is from the indigenous word for 'house of the white (people)'.[46]
Within hours of taking office in January 2019, Bolsonaro made two major changes to FUNAI, affecting its responsibility to identify and demarcate indigenous lands: He moved FUNAI from under the Ministry of Justice to under the newly created Ministry of Human Rights, Family and Women, and he delegated the identification of the traditional habitats of indigenous people and their designation as inviolable protected territories − a task attributed to FUNAI by the constitution – to the Agriculture Ministry.[47][48] He argued that those territories have tiny isolated populations and proposed to integrate them into the larger Brazilian society. Critics feared that such integration would lead the Brazilian natives to suffer cultural assimilation.[49][50] Several months later, Brazil's National Congress overturned these changes.
The
A 2019 report by the Indigenous Missionary Council on Violence against Indigenous Peoples in Brazil documented an increase in the number of invasions of indigenous lands by loggers, miners and land grabbers, recording 160 cases in the first nine months of 2019, up from 96 cases in the entirety of 2017. The number of reported killings in 2018, 135, had also increased from 110 recorded in 2017.[54]
On 5 May 2020, post-HRW's investigation, Brazilian lawmakers released a report examining the violence against Indigenous people, Afro-Brazilian rural communities and others engaged in illegal logging, mining, and land grabbing.[55]
Indigenous rights movements
Urban rights movement
The urban rights movement is a recent development in the rights of indigenous peoples. Brazil has one of the highest income inequalities in the world,[56] and much of that population includes indigenous tribes migrating toward urban areas both by choice and by displacement. Beyond the urban rights movement, studies have shown that the suicide risk among the indigenous population is 8.1 times higher than the non-indigenous population.[57]
Many indigenous rights movements have been created through the meeting of many indigenous tribes in urban areas. For example, in Barcelos, an indigenous rights movement arose because of "local migratory circulation.[58]" This is how many alliances form to create a stronger network for mobilization. Indigenous populations also living in urban areas have struggles regarding work. They are pressured into doing cheap labor.[59] Programs like Oxfam have been used to help indigenous people gain partnerships to begin grassroots movements.[60] Some of their projects overlap with environmental activism as well.
Many Brazilian youths are mobilizing through the increased social contact, since some indigenous tribes stay isolated while others adapt to the change.[61] Access to education also affects these youths, and therefore, more groups are mobilizing to fight for indigenous rights.
Environmental and territorial rights movement
Dynamics favouring recognition
Many of the indigenous tribes' rights and rights claims parallel the environmental and territorial rights movement. Although indigenous people have gained 21% of the Brazilian Amazon as part of indigenous land, many issues still affect the sustainability of Indigenous territories today.[62][45] Climate change is one issue that indigenous tribes attribute as a reason to keep their territory.
Some indigenous peoples and conservation organizations in the Brazilian Amazon have formed alliances, such as the alliance of the A'ukre Kayapo village and the Instituto SocioAmbiental (ISA) environmental organization. They focus on environmental, education and developmental rights.[63] For example, Amazon Watch collaborates with various indigenous organizations in Brazil to fight for both territorial and environmental rights.[64] "Access to natural resources by indigenous and peasant communities in Brazil has been considerably less and much more insecure,"[65] so activists focus on more traditional conservation efforts, and expanding territorial rights for indigenous people.
Territorial rights for the indigenous populations of Brazil largely fall under socio-economic issues. There have been violent conflicts regarding rights to land between the government and the indigenous population,[44] and political rights have done little to stop them. There have been movements of the landless (MST) that help keep land away from the elite living in Brazil.[66]
Dynamics opposing recognition
Environmentalists and indigenous peoples have been viewed as opponents to economic growth and barriers to development[67] due to the fact that much of the land that indigenous tribes live on could be used for development projects, including dams, and more industrialization.
Groups self-identifying as indigenous may lack intersubjective recognition, thus claims to TIs, which can involve the demarcation of large areas of territory and threaten to dispossess established local communities, can be challenged by others, even neighbouring kinship groups, on the grounds that those making the claims are not 'real Indians', due to factors such as historical intermarriage (
Education
The Afro-Brazilian and Indigenous History and Culture Law (Law No. 11.645/2008) is a
Major ethnic groups
For a complete list, see
- Amanayé
- Atikum
- Awá-Guajá
- Baniwa
- Botocudo
- Bará
- Enawene Nawe
- Guaraní
- Kadiwéu
- Kaingang
- Kamayurá (Kamaiurá)
- Karajá
- Kayapo
- Kubeo
- Kaxinawá
- Kokama
- Korubo
- Kulina Madihá
- Mbya
- Makuxi
- Matsés
- Mayoruna
- Munduruku
- Mura people
- Nambikwara
- Ofayé
- Pai Tavytera
- Panará
- Pankararu
- Pataxó
- Pirahã
- Paiter
- Potiguara
- Sateré Mawé
- Suruí do Pará
- Tapirape
- Terena
- Ticuna
- Tremembé
- Tupi
- Waorani
- Wapixana
- Wauja
- Witoto
- Xakriabá
- Xavante
- Xokleng
- Xukuru
- Yanomami
See also
- Amazon Watch
- Amerindians
- Archaeology of the Americas
- Agriculture in Brazil
- Bandeirantes
- Belo Monte Dam
- Bering Land Bridge
- Camarão indians' letters
- Darcy Ribeiro
- Encyclopedia of Indigenous Peoples in Brazil
- Ecotourism in the Amazon rainforest
- Chief Raoni
- COIAB
- Ceibo Alliance
- Brazilians
- Fundação Nacional do Índio
- Indigenous Peoples Day
- Índia pega no laço
- Indigenous peoples of South America
- Man of the Hole
- Museu do Índio
- Uncontacted peoples
- Percy Fawcett
- Sydney Possuelo
- Villas Boas brothers
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- ^ a b "FUNAI – National Indian Foundation (Brazil)". Retrieved 23 February 2011.
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{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Brazil's new president makes it harder to define indigenous lands". Global News. 2 January 2019.
- ^ "President Bolsonaro 'declares war' on Brazil's indigenous peoples – Survival responds". Survival International. 3 January 2019.
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External links
- Fundação Nacional do Índio, National Foundation of the Native American
- Encyclopedia of Indigenous people in Brazil. Instituto Socioambiental
- Etnolinguistica.Org: discussion list on South American languages
- Indigenous people Issues and Resources: Brazil
- Indigenous people in Brazil at Google Videos
- New photos of Uncontacted Brazilian tribe Archived 2 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- Google Video on Indigenous People of Brazil
- "Tribes" of Brazil
- Children of the Amazon, a documentary on indigenous people in Brazil
- Scientists find Evidence Discrediting Theory Amazon was Virtually Unlivable by The Washington Post