Jomo Kenyatta
Vice President | Jaramogi Oginga Odinga Joseph Murumbi Daniel arap Moi | |
---|---|---|
Preceded by | Elizabeth II as Queen of Kenya | |
Succeeded by | Daniel arap Moi | |
Prime Minister of Kenya | ||
In office 1 June 1963 – 12 December 1964 | ||
Monarch | Elizabeth II | |
Succeeded by | Raila Odinga (2008) | |
Chairman of the Kenya African National Union (KANU) | ||
In office 1961–1978 | ||
Preceded by | James Gichuru | |
Succeeded by | Daniel arap Moi | |
Member of Parliament for Gatundu | ||
In office 1963–1978 | ||
Preceded by | Constituency established | |
Succeeded by | Ngengi Wa Muigai | |
Personal details | ||
Born | Kamau wa Muigai c. 1897 Ngenda, British East Africa | |
Died | 22 August 1978 Mombasa, Coast Province, Kenya | (aged 80–81)|
Resting place | Parliament Buildings, Nairobi, Kenya | |
Nationality | Kenyan | |
Political party | KANU | |
Spouse(s) | Grace Wahu (m. 1919) Edna Clarke (1942–1946) Grace Wanjiku (d. 1950) | |
Alma mater | University College London London School of Economics | |
Notable work(s) | Facing Mount Kenya | |
Signature | ||
Jomo Kenyatta
Kenyatta was born to
On his release, Kenyatta became President of KANU and led the party to victory in the
Kenyatta was a controversial figure. Prior to Kenyan independence, many of its white settlers regarded him as an agitator and malcontent, although across Africa he gained widespread respect as an anti-colonialist. During his presidency, he was given the honorary title of Mzee and lauded as the
Early life
Childhood
A member of the Kikuyu people, Kenyatta was born with the name Kamau in the village of Ngenda.[2] Birth records were not then kept among the Kikuyu, and Kenyatta's date of birth is not known.[3] One biographer, Jules Archer, suggested he was likely born in 1890,[4] although a fuller analysis by Jeremy Murray-Brown suggested a birth circa 1897 or 1898.[5] Kenyatta's father was named Muigai, and his mother Wambui.[2] They lived in a homestead near River Thiririka, where they raised crops and bred sheep and goats.[2] Muigai was sufficiently wealthy that he could afford to keep several wives, each living in a separate nyũmba (woman's hut).[6]
Kenyatta was raised according to traditional Kikuyu custom and belief, and was taught the skills needed to herd the family flock.[7] When he was ten, his earlobes were pierced to mark his transition from childhood.[8] Wambui subsequently bore another son, Kongo,[9] shortly before Muigai died.[10] In keeping with Kikuyu tradition, Wambui then married her late husband's younger brother, Ngengi.[10] Kenyatta then took the name of Kamau wa Ngengi ("Kamau, son of Ngengi").[11] Wambui bore her new husband a son, whom they also named Muigai.[10] Ngengi was harsh and resentful toward the three boys, and Wambui decided to take her youngest son to live with her parental family further north.[10] It was there that she died, and Kenyatta—who was very fond of the younger Muigai—travelled to collect his infant half-brother.[10] Kenyatta then moved in with his grandfather, Kongo wa Magana, and assisted the latter in his role as a traditional healer.[12]
"Missionaries have done a lot of good work because it was through the missionary that many of the Kikuyu got their first education ... and were able to learn how to read and write ... Also, the medical side of it: the missionary did very well. At the same time I think the missionaries ... did not understand the value of the African custom, and many of them tried to stamp out some of the customs without knowing the part they play in the life of the Kikuyu ... They upset the life of the people."
—Kenyatta, in a BBC interview, 1963[13]
In November 1909, Kenyatta left home and enrolled as a pupil at the Church of Scotland Mission (CSM) at Thogoto.[14] The missionaries were zealous Christians who believed that bringing Christianity to the indigenous peoples of Eastern Africa was part of Britain's civilizing mission.[15] While there, Kenyatta stayed at the small boarding school, where he learnt stories from the Bible,[16] and was taught to read and write in English.[17] He also performed chores for the mission, including washing the dishes and weeding the gardens.[18] He was soon joined at the mission dormitory by his brother Kongo.[19] The longer the pupils stayed, the more they came to resent the patronising way many of the British missionaries treated them.[20]
Kenyatta's academic progress was unremarkable, and in July 1912 he became an apprentice to the mission's carpenter.[21] That year, he professed his dedication to Christianity and began undergoing catechism.[21] In 1913, he underwent the Kikuyu circumcision ritual; the missionaries generally disapproved of this custom, but it was an important aspect of Kikuyu tradition, allowing Kenyatta to be recognized as an adult.[22] Asked to take a Christian name for his upcoming baptism, he first chose both John and Peter after Jesus' apostles. Forced by the missionaries to choose just one, he chose Johnstone, the -stone chosen as a reference to Peter.[23] Accordingly, he was baptized as Johnstone Kamau in August 1914.[24] After his baptism, Kenyatta moved out of the mission dormitory and lived with friends.[25] Having completed his apprenticeship to the carpenter, Kenyatta requested that the mission allow him to be an apprentice stonemason, but they refused.[25] He then requested that the mission recommend him for employment, but the head missionary refused because of an allegation of minor dishonesty.[26]
Nairobi: 1914–1922
Kenyatta moved to
In 1917, Kenyatta moved to
In April 1922, Kenyatta began working as a stores clerk and meter reader for Cook, who had been appointed water superintendent for Nairobi's municipal council.[41] He earned 250/= (£12/10/–, equivalent to £726 in 2021) a month, a particularly high wage for a native African, which brought him financial independence and a growing sense of self-confidence.[42] Kenyatta lived in the Kilimani neighbourhood of Nairobi,[43] although he financed the construction of a second home at Dagoretti; he referred to this latter hut as the Kinyata Stores for he used it to hold general provisions for the neighborhood.[44] He had sufficient funds that he could lend money to European clerks in the offices,[45] and could enjoy the lifestyle offered by Nairobi, which included cinemas, football matches, and imported British fashions.[45]
Kikuyu Central Association: 1922–1929
Anti-imperialist sentiment was on the rise among both native and Indian communities in Kenya following the Irish War of Independence and the Russian October Revolution.[46] Many indigenous Africans resented having to carry kipande identity certificates at all times, being forbidden from growing coffee, and paying taxes without political representation.[47] Political upheavals occurred in Kikuyuland—the area inhabited largely by the Kikuyu—following World War I, among them the campaigns of Harry Thuku and the East African Association, resulting in the government massacre of 21 native protesters in March 1922.[48] Kenyatta had not taken part in these events,[49] perhaps so as not to disrupt his lucrative employment prospects.[43]
Kenyatta's interest in politics stemmed from his friendship with James Beauttah, a senior figure in the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA). Beauttah took Kenyatta to a political meeting in Pumwani, although this led to no firm involvement at the time.[50] In either 1925 or early 1926, Beauttah moved to Uganda, but remained in contact with Kenyatta.[46] When the KCA wrote to Beauttah and asked him to travel to London as their representative, he declined, but recommended that Kenyatta—who had a good command of English—go in his place.[51] Kenyatta accepted, probably on the condition that the Association matched his pre-existing wage.[52] He thus became the group's secretary.[53]
It is likely that the KCA purchased a motorbike for Kenyatta,
In May 1928, the KCA launched a Kikuyu-language magazine, Mũigwithania (roughly translated as "The Reconciler" or "The Unifier"), in which it published news, articles, and homilies.[59] Its purpose was to help unify the Kikuyu and raise funds for the KCA.[60] Kenyatta was listed as the publication's editor,[58] although Murray-Brown suggested that he was not the guiding hand behind it and that his duties were largely confined to translating into Kikuyu.[60] Aware that Thuku had been exiled for his activism, Kenyatta's took a cautious approach to campaigning, and in Mũigwithania he expressed support for the churches, district commissioners, and chiefs.[61] He also praised the British Empire, stating that: "The first thing [about the Empire] is that all people are governed justly, big or small—equally. The second thing is that nobody is regarded as a slave, everyone is free to do what he or she likes without being hindered."[60] This did not prevent Grigg from writing to the authorities in London requesting permission to shut the magazine down.[57]
Overseas
London: 1929–1931
After the KCA raised sufficient funds, in February 1929 Kenyatta sailed from
Kenyatta developed contacts with radicals to the left of the Labour Party, including several communists.[72] In the summer of 1929, he left London and traveled by Berlin to Moscow before returning to London in October.[73] Kenyatta was strongly influenced by his time in the Soviet Union.[74] Back in England, he wrote three articles on the Kenyan situation for the Communist Party of Great Britain's newspapers, the Daily Worker and Sunday Worker. In these, his criticism of British imperialism was far stronger than it had been in Muĩgwithania.[75] These communist links concerned many of Kenyatta's liberal patrons.[72] In January, Kenyatta met with Drummond Shiels, the Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, at the House of Commons. Kenyatta told Shiels that he was not affiliated with communist circles and was unaware of the nature of the newspaper which published his articles.[76] Shiels advised Kenyatta to return home to promote Kikuyu involvement in the constitutional process and discourage violence and extremism.[77] After eighteen months in Europe, Kenyatta had run out of money. The Anti-Slavery Society advanced him funds to pay off his debts and return to Kenya.[78] Although Kenyatta enjoyed life in London and feared arrest if he returned home,[79] he sailed back to Mombasa in September 1930.[80] On his return, his prestige among the Kikuyu was high because of his time spent in Europe.[81]
In his absence, female genital mutilation (FGM) had become a topic of strong debate in Kikuyu society. The Protestant churches, backed by European medics and the colonial authorities, supported the abolition of this traditional practice, but the KCA rallied to its defence, claiming that its abolition would damage the structure of Kikuyu society.[82] Anger between the two sides had heightened, several churches expelling KCA members from their congregations, and it was widely believed that the January 1930 killing of an American missionary, Hulda Stumpf, had been due to the issue.[83] As Secretary of the KCA, Kenyatta met with church representatives. He expressed the view that although personally opposing FGM, he regarded its legal abolition as counter-productive, and argued that the churches should focus on eradicating the practice through educating people about its harmful effects on women's health.[84] The meeting ended without compromise, and John Arthur—the head of the Church of Scotland in Kenya—later expelled Kenyatta from the church, citing what he deemed dishonesty during the debate.[85] In 1931, Kenyatta took his son out of the church school at Thogota and enrolled him in a KCA-approved, independent school.[86]
Return to Europe: 1931–1933
"With the support of all revolutionary workers and peasants we must redouble our efforts to break the bonds that bind us. We must refuse to give any support to the British imperialists either by paying taxes or obeying any of their slave laws! We can fight in unity with the workers and toilers of the whole world, and for a Free Africa."
—Kenyatta in the Labour Monthly, November 1933[87]
In May 1931, Kenyatta and
In Britain, Kenyatta befriended an Afro-Caribbean Marxist,
The emergence of Germany's Nazi government shifted political allegiances in Europe; the Soviet Union pursued formal alliances with France and Czechoslovakia,[103] and thus reduced its support for the movement against British and French colonial rule in Africa.[104] As a result, Comintern disbanded the International Trade Union Committee of Negro Workers, with which both Padmore and Kenyatta were affiliated. Padmore resigned from the Soviet Communist Party in protest, and was subsequently vilified in the Soviet press.[105] Both Padmore and Kenyatta left the Soviet Union, the latter returning to London in August 1933.[106] The British authorities were highly suspicious of Kenyatta's time in the Soviet Union, suspecting that he was a Marxist-Leninist, and following his return the MI5 intelligence service intercepted and read all his mail.[107]
Kenyatta continued writing articles, reflecting Padmore's influence.[108] Between 1931 and 1937 he wrote several articles for the Negro Worker and joined the newspaper's editorial board in 1933.[109] He also produced an article for a November 1933 issue of Labour Monthly,[110] and in May 1934 had a letter published in The Manchester Guardian.[111] He also wrote the entry on Kenya for Negro, an anthology edited by Nancy Cunard and published in 1934.[112] In these, he took a more radical position than he had in the past, calling for complete self-rule in Kenya.[113] In doing so he was virtually alone among political Kenyans; figures like Thuku and Jesse Kariuki were far more moderate in their demands.[114] The pro-independence sentiments that he was able to express in Britain would not have been permitted in Kenya itself.[87]
University College London and the London School of Economics: 1933–1939
Between 1935 and 1937, Kenyatta worked as a linguistic informant for the Phonetics Department at University College London (UCL); his Kikuyu voice recordings assisted Lilias Armstrong's production of The Phonetic and Tonal Structure of Kikuyu.[115] The book was published under Armstrong's name, although Kenyatta claimed he should have been listed as co-author.[116] He enrolled at UCL as a student, studying an English course between January and July 1935 and then a phonetics course from October 1935 to June 1936.[117] Enabled by a grant from the International African Institute,[118] he also took a social anthropology course under Bronisław Malinowski at the London School of Economics (LSE). Kenyatta lacked the qualifications normally required to join the course, but Malinowski was keen to support the participation of indigenous peoples in anthropological research.[119] For Kenyatta, acquiring an advanced degree would bolster his status among Kenyans and display his intellectual equality with white Europeans in Kenya.[120]
Over the course of his studies, Kenyatta and Malinowski became close friends.
Kenyatta returned to his former dwellings at 95 Cambridge Street,
In 1935,
Kenyatta assembled the essays on Kikuyu society written for Malinowski's class and published them as Facing Mount Kenya in 1938.[138] Featuring an introduction written by Malinowski,[139] the book reflected Kenyatta's desire to use anthropology as a weapon against colonialism.[122] In it, Kenyatta challenged the Eurocentric view of history by presenting an image of a golden African past by emphasising the perceived order, virtue, and self-sufficiency of Kikuyu society.[140] Utilising a functionalist framework,[141] he promoted the idea that traditional Kikuyu society had a cohesion and integrity that was better than anything offered by European colonialism.[142] In this book, Kenyatta made clear his belief that the rights of the individual should be downgraded in favour of the interests of the group.[143] The book also reflected his changing views on female genital mutilation; where once he opposed it, he now unequivocally supported the practice, downplaying the medical dangers that it posed to women.[144]
The book's jacket cover featured an image of Kenyatta in traditional dress, wearing a skin cloak over one shoulder and carrying a spear.[145] The book was published under the name "Jomo Kenyatta", the first time that he had done so; the term Jomo was close to a Kikuyu word describing the removal of a sword from its scabbard.[146] Facing Mount Kenya was a commercial failure, selling only 517 copies, but was generally well received;[147] an exception was among white Kenyans, whose assumptions about the Kikuyu being primitive savages in need of European civilization it challenged.[148] Murray-Brown later described it as "a propaganda tour de force. No other African had made such an uncompromising stand for tribal integrity."[149] Bodil Folke Frederiksen, a scholar of development studies, referred to it as "probably the most well-known and influential African scholarly work of its time",[150] while for fellow scholar Simon Gikandi, it was "one of the major texts in what has come to be known as the invention of tradition in colonial Africa".[151]
World War II: 1939–1945
"In the last war 300,000 of my people fought in the British Army to drive the Germans from East Africa and 60,000 of them lost their lives. In this war large numbers of my people have been fighting to smash fascist power in Africa and have borne some of the hardest fights against the Italians. Surely if we are considered fit enough to take our rifles and fight side by side with white men we have a right to a direct say in the running of our country and to education."
—Kenyatta, during World War II[152]
After the United Kingdom entered World War II in September 1939, Kenyatta and Stock moved to the Sussex village of Storrington.[153] Kenyatta remained there for the duration of the war, renting a flat and a small plot of land to grow vegetables and raise chickens.[154] He settled into rural Sussex life,[155] and became a regular at the village pub, where he gained the nickname "Jumbo".[156] In August 1940, he took a job at a local farm as an agricultural worker—allowing him to evade military conscription—before working in the tomato greenhouses at Lindfield.[157] He attempted to join the local Home Guard, but was turned down.[152] On 11 May 1942 he married an English woman, Edna Grace Clarke, at Chanctonbury Registry Office.[158] In August 1943, their son, Peter Magana, was born.[158]
Intelligence services continued monitoring Kenyatta, noting that he was politically inactive between 1939 and 1944.[159] In Sussex, he wrote an essay for the United Society for Christian Literature, My People of Kikuyu and the Life of Chief Wangombe, in which he called for his tribe's political independence.[160] He also began—although never finished—a novel partly based on his life experiences.[161] He continued to give lectures around the country, including to groups of East African soldiers stationed in Britain.[162] He became frustrated by the distance between him and Kenya, telling Edna that he felt "like a general separated by 5000 miles from his troops".[163] While he was absent, Kenya's authorities banned the KCA in 1940.[164]
Kenyatta and other senior IASB members began planning the fifth Pan-African Congress, held in Manchester in October 1945.[165] They were assisted by Kwame Nkrumah, a Gold Coast (Ghanaian) who arrived in Britain earlier that year.[166] Kenyatta spoke at the conference, although made no particular impact on the proceedings.[167] Much of the debate that took place centred on whether indigenous Africans should continue pursuing a gradual campaign for independence or whether they should seek the military overthrow of the European imperialists.[168] The conference ended with a statement declaring that while delegates desired a peaceful transition to African self-rule, Africans "as a last resort, may have to appeal to force in the effort to achieve Freedom".[167] Kenyatta supported this resolution, although was more cautious than other delegates and made no open commitment to violence.[169] He subsequently authored an IASB pamphlet, Kenya: The Land of Conflict, in which he blended political calls for independence with romanticised descriptions of an idealised pre-colonial African past.[170]
Return to Kenya
Presidency of the Kenya African Union: 1946–1952
After British victory in World War II, Kenyatta received a request to return to Kenya in September 1946, sailing back that month.
In August 1944, the
To attract support from Kenya's Indian community, he made contact with
By 1952, Kenyatta was widely recognized as a national leader, both by his supporters and by his opponents.
Trial: 1952–1953
"We Africans are in the majority [in Kenya], and we should have self-government. That does not mean we should not take account of whites, provided we have the key position. We want to be friendly with whites. We don't want to be dominated by them."
—Kenyatta, quoted by the Daily Express, September 1952[205]
In October 1952, Kenyatta was arrested and driven to Nairobi, where he was taken aboard a plane and flown to Lokitaung, northwest Kenya, one of the most remote locations in the country.[206] From there he wrote to his family to let them know of his situation.[207] Kenya's authorities believed that detaining Kenyatta would help quell civil unrest.[208] Many white settlers wanted him exiled, but the government feared this would turn him into a martyr for the anti-colonialist cause.[209] They thought it better that he be convicted and imprisoned, although at the time had nothing to charge him with, and so began searching his personal files for evidence of criminal activity.[208] Eventually, they charged him and five senior KAU members with masterminding the Mau Mau, a proscribed group.[210] The historian John M. Lonsdale stated that Kenyatta had been made a "scapegoat",[211] while the historian A. B. Assensoh later suggested that the authorities "knew very well" that Kenyatta was not involved in the Mau Mau, but that they were nevertheless committed to silencing his calls for independence.[212]
The trial took place in
In April 1953, Judge Thacker found the defendants guilty.
Kenyatta and the others were returned to Lokitaung, where they resided on
Imprisonment: 1954–1961
During the appeal process, a prison had been built at Lokitaung, where Kenyatta and the four others were then interned.
Kenyatta's imprisonment transformed him into a political martyr for many Kenyans, further enhancing his status.[194] A Luo anti-colonial activist, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, was the first to publicly call for Kenyatta's release, an issue that gained growing support among Kenya's anti-colonialists.[233] In 1955, the British writer Montagu Slater—a socialist sympathetic to Kenyatta's plight—released The Trial of Jomo Kenyatta, a book which raised the profile of the case.[234] In 1958, Rawson Macharia, the key witness in the state's prosecution of Kenyatta, signed an affidavit swearing that his evidence against Kenyatta had been false; this was widely publicised.[235] By the late 1950s, the imprisoned Kenyatta had become a symbol of African nationalism across the continent.[236]
His sentence served, in April 1959 Kenyatta was released from Lokitaung.[237] The administration then placed a restricting order on Kenyatta, forcing him to reside in the remote area of Lodwar, where he had to report to the district commissioner twice a day.[238] There, he was joined by his wife Ngina.[239] In October 1961, they had another son, Uhuru, and later on another daughter, Nyokabi, and a further son, Muhoho.[240] Kenyatta spent two years in Lodwar.[241] The Governor of Kenya, Patrick Muir Renison, insisted that it was necessary; in a March 1961 speech, he described Kenyatta an "African leader to darkness and death" and stated that if he were released, violence would erupt.[242]
This indefinite detention was widely interpreted internationally as a reflection of the cruelties of British imperialism.[243] Calls for his release came from the Chinese government,[244] India's Nehru,[245] and Tanganyika's Prime Minister Julius Nyerere.[246] Kwame Nkrumah—whom Kenyatta had known since the 1940s and who was now President of a newly independent Ghana—personally raised the issue with British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan and other UK officials,[247] with the Ghanaian government offering Kenyatta asylum in the event of his release.[248] Resolutions calling for his release were produced at the All-African Peoples' Conferences held in Tunis in 1960 and Cairo in 1961.[236] Internal calls for his release came from Kenyan Asian activists in the Kenya Indian Congress,[249] while a colonial government commissioned poll revealed that most of Kenya's indigenous Africans wanted this outcome.[250]
By this point, it was widely accepted that Kenyan independence was inevitable, the British Empire having been dismantled throughout much of Asia and Macmillan having made his "Wind of Change" speech.[251] In January 1960, the British government made its intention to free Kenya apparent.[252] It invited representatives of Kenya's anti-colonial movement to discuss the transition at London's Lancaster House. An agreement was reached that an election would be called for a new 65-seat Legislative Council, with 33 seats reserved for black Africans, 20 for other ethnic groups, and 12 as 'national members' elected by a pan-racial electorate.[212] It was clear to all concerned that Kenyatta was going to be the key to the future of Kenyan politics.[253]
After the Lancaster House negotiations, the anti-colonial movement had split into two parties, the Kenya African National Union (KANU), which was dominated by Kikuyu and Luo, and the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), which was led largely by members of smaller ethnic groups like the Kalenjin and Maasai.[254] In May 1960, KANU nominated Kenyatta as its president, although the government vetoed it, insisting that he had been an instigator of the Mau Mau.[255] KANU then declared that it would refuse to take part in any government unless Kenyatta was freed.[256] KANU campaigned on the issue of Kenyatta's detainment in the February 1961 election, where it gained a majority of votes.[257] KANU nevertheless refused to form a government, which was instead created through a KADU-led coalition of smaller parties.[258] Kenyatta had kept abreast of these developments, although he had refused to back either KANU or KADU,[259] instead insisting on unity between the two parties.[260]
Preparing for independence: 1961–1963
Renison decided to release Kenyatta before Kenya achieved independence. He thought public exposure to Kenyatta prior to elections would make the populace less likely to vote for a man Renison regarded as a violent extremist.[261] In April 1961, the government flew Kenyatta to Maralal, where he maintained his innocence of the charges but told reporters that he bore no grudges.[262] He reiterated that he had never supported violence or the illegal oathing system used by the Mau Mau,[263] and denied having ever been a Marxist, stating: "I shall always remain an African Nationalist to the end".[264] In August, he was moved to Gatundu in Kikuyuland, where he was greeted by a crowd of 10,000.[265] There, the colonial government had built him a new house to replace that they had demolished.[266] Now a free man, he travelled to cities like Nairobi and Mombasa to make public appearances.[267] After his release, Kenyatta set about trying to ensure that he was the only realistic option as Kenya's future leader.
Kenyatta traveled elsewhere in Africa, visiting Tanganyika in October 1961 and Ethiopia in November at the invitation of their governments.[272] A key issue facing Kenya was a border dispute in North East Province, alongside Somalia. Ethnic Somalis inhabited this region and claimed it should be part of Somalia, not Kenya.[273] Kenyatta disagreed, insisting the land remain Kenyan,[274] and stated that Somalis in Kenya should "pack up [their] camels and go to Somalia".[275] In June 1962, Kenyatta travelled to Mogadishu to discuss the issue with the Somalian authorities, but the two sides could not reach an agreement.[276]
Kenyatta sought to gain the confidence of the white settler community. In 1962, the white minority had produced 80% of the country's exports and were a vital part of its economy, yet between 1962 and 1963 they were emigrating at a rate of 700 a month; Kenyatta feared that this white exodus would cause a
In 1962 he returned to London to attend one of the Lancaster House conferences.[281] There, KANU and KADU representatives met with British officials to formulate a new constitution.[282] KADU desired a federalist state organised on a system they called Majimbo with six largely autonomous regional authorities, a two-chamber legislature, and a central Federal Council of Ministers who would select a rotating chair to serve as head of government for a one-year term. Renison's administration and most white settlers favoured this system as it would prevent a strong central government implementing radical reform.[283] KANU opposed Majimbo, believing that it served entrenched interests and denied equal opportunities across Kenya; they also insisted on an elected head of government.[284] At Kenyatta's prompting, KANU conceded to some of KADU's demands; he was aware that he could amend the constitution when in office.[285] The new constitution divided Kenya into six regions, each with a regional assembly, but also featured a strong central government and both an upper and a lower house.[282] It was agreed that a temporary coalition government would be established until independence, several KANU politicians being given ministerial posts.[286] Kenyatta accepted a minor position, that of the Minister of State for Constitutional Affairs and Economic Planning.[287]
The British government considered Renison too ill at ease with indigenous Africans to oversee the transition to independence and thus replaced him with Malcolm MacDonald as Governor of Kenya in January 1963.[288] MacDonald and Kenyatta developed a strong friendship;[289] the Briton referred to the latter as "the wisest and perhaps strongest as well as most popular potential Prime Minister of the independent nation to be".[290] MacDonald sped up plans for Kenyan independence, believing that the longer the wait, the greater the opportunity for radicalisation among African nationalists.[291] An election was scheduled for May, with self-government in June, followed by full independence in December 1964.[292]
Leadership
Premiership: 1963–1964
The May 1963 general election pitted Kenyatta's KANU against KADU, the Akamba People's Party, and various independent candidates.[293] KANU was victorious with 83 seats out of 124 in the House of Representatives;[280] a KANU majority government replaced the pre-existing coalition.[294] On 1 June 1963, Kenyatta was sworn in as prime minister of the autonomous Kenyan government.[295] Kenya remained a monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state.[296] In November 1963, Kenyatta's government introduced a law making it a criminal offence to disrespect the Prime Minister, exile being the punishment.[297] Kenyatta's personality became a central aspect of the creation of the new state.[297] In December, Nairobi's Delamere Avenue was renamed Kenyatta Avenue,[298] and a bronze statue of him was erected beside the country's National Assembly.[297] Photographs of Kenyatta were widely displayed in shop windows,[297] and his face was also printed on the new currency.[297] In 1964, Oxford University Press published a collection of Kenyatta's speeches under the title of Harambee!.[299]
Kenya's first cabinet included not only Kikuyu but also members of the Luo, Kamba, Kisii, and Maragoli tribal groups.[300] In June 1963, Kenyatta met with Julius Nyerere and Ugandan President Milton Obote in Nairobi. The trio discussed the possibility of merging their three nations (plus Zanzibar) into a single East African Federation, agreeing that this would be accomplished by the end of the year.[301] Privately, Kenyatta was more reluctant regarding the arrangement and as 1964 came around the federation had not come to pass.[302] Many radical voices in Kenya urged him to pursue the project;[303] in May 1964, Kenyatta rejected a back-benchers resolution calling for speedier federation.[302] He publicly stated that talk of a federation had always been a ruse to hasten the pace of Kenyan independence from Britain, but Nyerere denied that this was true.[302]
Continuing to emphasize good relations with the white settlers, in August 1963 Kenyatta met with 300 white farmers at Nakuru. He reassured them that they would be safe and welcome in an independent Kenya, and more broadly talked of forgiving and forgetting the conflicts of the past.[304] Despite his attempts at wooing white support, he did not do the same with the Indian minority.[305] Like many indigenous Africans in Kenya, Kenyatta bore a sense of resentment towards this community, despite the role that many Indians had played in securing the country's independence.[306] He also encouraged the remaining Mau Mau fighters to leave the forests and settle in society.[278] Throughout Kenyatta's rule, many of these individuals remained out of work, unemployment being one of the most persistent problems facing his government.[306]
A celebration to mark independence was held in a specially constructed stadium on 12 December 1963. During the ceremony, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh—representing the British monarchy—formally handed over control of the country to Kenyatta.[307] Also in attendance were leading figures from the Mau Mau.[308] In a speech, Kenyatta described it as "the greatest day in Kenya's history and the happiest day in my life."[309] He had flown Edna and Peter over for the ceremony, and in Kenya they were welcomed into Kenyatta's family by his other wives.[310]
Disputes with Somalia over the Northern Frontier District (NFD) continued; for much of Kenyatta's rule, Somalia remained the major threat to his government.[311] To deal with sporadic violence in the region by Somali shifta guerrillas, Kenyatta sent soldiers into the region in December 1963 and gave them broad powers of arrest and seizure in the NFD in September 1964.[312] British troops were assigned to assist the Kenyan Army in the region.[313] Kenyatta also faced domestic opposition: in January 1964, sections of the army launched a mutiny in Nairobi, and Kenyatta called on the British Army to put down the rebellion.[314] Similar armed uprisings had taken place that month in neighboring Uganda and Tanganyika.[314] Kenyatta was outraged and shaken by the mutiny.[315] He publicly rebuked the mutineers, emphasising the need for law and order in Kenya.[316] To prevent further military unrest, he brought in a review of the salaries of the army, police, and prison staff, leading to pay rises.[315] Kenyatta also wanted to contain parliamentary opposition and at Kenyatta's prompting, in November 1964 KADU officially dissolved and its representatives joined KANU.[317] Two of the senior members of KADU, Ronald Ngala and Daniel arap Moi, subsequently became some of Kenyatta's most loyal supporters.[318] Kenya therefore became a de facto one-party state.[319]
Presidency: 1964–1978
In December 1964, Kenya was officially proclaimed a republic.[320] Kenyatta became its executive president,[321] combining the roles of head of state and head of government.[322] Over the course of 1965 and 1966, several constitutional amendments enhanced the president's power.[323] For instance, a May 1966 amendment gave the president the ability to order the detention of individuals without trial if he thought the security of the state was threatened.[324] Seeking the support of Kenya's second largest ethnic group, the Luo, Kenyatta appointed the Luo Oginga Odinga as his vice president.[325] The Kikuyu—who made up around 20 percent of population—still held most of the country's important government and administrative positions.[326] This contributed to a perception among many Kenyans that independence had simply seen the dominance of a British elite replaced by the dominance of a Kikuyu elite.[306]
Kenyatta's calls to forgive and forget the past were a keystone of his government.
Kenyatta's government believed it necessary to cultivate a united Kenyan national culture.
Economic policy
Independent Kenya had an economy heavily molded by colonial rule; agriculture dominated while industry was limited, and there was a heavy reliance on exporting primary goods while importing capital and manufactured goods.
In contrast to his economic policies, Kenyatta publicly claimed he would create a
Kenya's agricultural and industrial sectors were dominated by Europeans and its commerce and trade by Asians; one of Kenyatta's most pressing issues was to bring the economy under indigenous control.[342] There was growing black resentment towards the Asian domination of the small business sector,[350] with Kenyatta's government putting pressure on Asian-owned businesses, intending to replace them with African-owned counterparts.[351] The 1965 session paper promised an "Africanization" of the Kenyan economy,[352] with the government increasingly pushing for "black capitalism".[351] The government established the Industrial and Commercial Development Corporation to provide loans for black-owned businesses,[351] and secured a 51% share in the Kenya National Assurance Company.[353] In 1965, the government established the Kenya National Trading Corporation to ensure indigenous control over the trade in essential commodities,[354] while the Trade Licensing Act of 1967 prohibited non-citizens from involvement in the rice, sugar, and maize trade.[355] During the 1970s, this expanded to cover the trade in soap, cement, and textiles.[354] Many Asians who had retained British citizenship were affected by these measures.[356] Between late 1967 and early 1968, growing numbers of Kenyan Asians migrated to Britain;[357] in February 1968 large numbers migrated quickly before a legal change revoked their right to do so.[358] Kenyatta was not sympathetic to those leaving: "Kenya's identity as an African country is not going to be altered by the whims and malaises of groups of uncommitted individuals."[358]
Under Kenyatta, corruption became widespread throughout the government, civil service, and business community.[359] Kenyatta and his family were tied up with this corruption as they enriched themselves through the mass purchase of property after 1963.[360] Their acquisitions in the Central, Rift Valley, and Coast Provinces aroused great anger among landless Kenyans.[361] His family used his presidential position to circumvent legal or administrative obstacles to acquiring property.[362] The Kenyatta family also heavily invested in the coastal hotel business, Kenyatta personally owning the Leonard Beach Hotel.[363] Other businesses they were involved with included ruby mining in Tsavo National Park, the casino business, the charcoal trade—which was causing significant deforestation—and the ivory trade.[364] The Kenyan press, which was largely loyal to Kenyatta, did not delve into this issue;[365] it was only after his death that publications appeared revealing the scale of his personal enrichment.[366] Kenyan corruption and Kenyatta's role in it was better known in Britain, although many of his British friends—including McDonald and Brockway—chose to believe Kenyatta was not personally involved.[367]
Despite Kenyatta's shortcomings on economic policy, compared with the economic performance of the vast majority of countries in independent Africa, Kenya's economic success during Kenyatta's tenure was outstanding. During the years following its independence in December, 1963, Kenya attained such a high rate of economic growth that it came to be widely regarded as something of an economic "miracle." According to World Bank figures, Kenya's economy attained an average growth rate of 6.4 percent per year from 1965 to 1980.[368] Among the 40 or more independent countries in sub-Saharan Africa, only 3 exceeded that growth rate; Nigeria, Ivory Coast, and Botswana. Kenyatta's success can be attributed to his focus on the agricultural sector, particularly on cash crops such as tea and coffee.[368]
Land, healthcare, and education reform
The question of land ownership had deep emotional resonance in Kenya, having been a major grievance against the British colonialists.[369] As part of the Lancaster House negotiations, Britain's government agreed to provide Kenya with £27 million with which to buy out white farmers and redistribute their land among the indigenous population.[370] To ease this transition, Kenyatta made Bruce McKenzie, a white farmer, the Minister of Agriculture and Land.[370] Kenyatta's government encouraged the establishment of private land-buying companies that were often headed by prominent politicians.[371] The government sold or leased lands in the former White Highlands to these companies, which in turn subdivided them among individual shareholders.[371] In this way, the land redistribution programs favoured the ruling party's chief constituency.[372] Kenyatta himself expanded the land that he owned around Gatundu.[306] Kenyans who made claims to land on the basis of ancestral ownership often found the land given to other people, including Kenyans from different parts of the country.[372] Voices began to condemn the redistribution; in 1969, the MP Jean-Marie Seroney censured the sale of historically Nandi lands in the Rift to non-Nandi, describing the settlement schemes as "Kenyatta's colonization of the rift".[373]
In part fuelled by high rural unemployment, Kenya witnessed growing rural-to-urban migration under Kenyatta's government.[374] This exacerbated urban unemployment and housing shortages, with squatter settlements and slums growing up and urban crime rates rising.[375] Kenyatta was concerned by this, and promoted the reversal of this rural-to-urban migration, but in this was unsuccessful.[376] Kenyatta's government was eager to control the country's trade unions, fearing their ability to disrupt the economy.[353] To this end it emphasised social welfare schemes over traditional industrial institutions,[353] and in 1965 transformed the Kenya Federation of Labour into the Central Organization of Trade (COT), a body which came under strong government influence.[377] No strikes could be legally carried out in Kenya without COT's permission.[378] There were also measures to Africanise the civil service, which by mid-1967 had become 91% African.[379] During the 1960s and 1970s the public sector grew faster than the private sector.[380] The growth in the public sector contributed to the significant expansion of the indigenous middle class in Kenyatta's Kenya.[381]
The government oversaw a massive expansion in education facilities.[382] In June 1963, Kenyatta ordered the Ominda Commission to determine a framework for meeting Kenya's educational needs.[383] Their report set out the long-term goal of universal free primary education in Kenya but argued that the government's emphasis should be on secondary and higher education to facilitate the training of indigenous African personnel to take over the civil service and other jobs requiring such an education.[384] Between 1964 and 1966, the number of primary schools grew by 11.6%, and the number of secondary schools by 80%.[384] By the time of Kenyatta's death, Kenya's first universities—the University of Nairobi and Kenyatta University—had been established.[385] Although Kenyatta died without having attained the goal of free, universal primary education in Kenya, the country had made significant advances in that direction, with 85% of Kenyan children in primary education, and within a decade of independence had trained sufficient numbers of indigenous Africans to take over the civil service.[386]
Another priority for Kenyatta's government was improving access to healthcare services.[387] It stated that its long-term goal was to establish a system of free, universal medical care.[388] In the short-term, its emphasis was on increasing the overall number of doctors and registered nurses while decreasing the number of expatriates in those positions.[387] In 1965, the government introduced free medical services for out-patients and children.[388] By Kenyatta's death, the majority of Kenyans had access to significantly better healthcare than they had had in the colonial period.[388] Before independence, the average life expectancy in Kenya was 45, but by the end of the 1970s it was 55, the second-highest in Sub-Saharan Africa.[389] This improved medical care had resulted in declining mortality rates while birth rates remained high, resulting in a rapidly growing population; from 1962 to 1979, Kenya's population grew by just under 4% a year, the highest rate in the world at the time.[390] This put a severe strain on social services; Kenyatta's government promoted family planning projects to stem the birth-rate, but these had little success.[391]
Foreign policy
In part due to his advanced years, Kenyatta rarely traveled outside of Eastern Africa.[392] Under Kenyatta, Kenya was largely uninvolved in the affairs of other states, including those in the East African Community.[240] Despite his reservations about any immediate East African Federation, in June 1967 Kenyatta signed the Treaty for East African Co-operation.[393] In December he attended a meeting with Tanzanian and Ugandan representatives to form the East African Economic Community, reflecting Kenyatta's cautious approach toward regional integration.[393] He also took on a mediating role during the Congo Crisis, heading the Organisation of African Unity's Conciliation Commission on the Congo.[394]
Facing the pressures of the
Although many white Kenyans accepted Kenyatta's rule, he remained opposed by white
Kenyatta and his government were anti-communist,
Dissent and the one-party state
Kenyatta made clear his desire for Kenya to become a one-party state, regarding this as a better expression of national unity than a multi-party system.[411] In the first five years of independence, he consolidated control of the central government,[412] removing the autonomy of Kenya's provinces to prevent the entrenchment of ethnic power bases.[413] He argued that centralised control of the government was needed to deal with the growth in demands for local services and to assist quicker economic development.[413] In 1966, it launched a commission to examine reforms to local government operations,[413] and in 1969 passed the Transfer of Functions Act, which terminated grants to local authorities and transferred major services from provincial to central control.[414]
A major focus for Kenyatta during the first three and a half years of Kenya's independence were the divisions within KANU itself.
The new party was a direct challenge to Kenyatta's rule,[422] and he regarded it as a communist-inspired plot to oust him.[423] Soon after the KPU's creation, the Kenyan Parliament amended the constitution to ensure that the defectors—who had originally been elected on the KANU ticket—could not automatically retain their seats and would have to stand for re-election.[424] This resulted in the election of June 1966.[425] The Luo increasingly rallied around the KPU,[426] which experienced localized violence that hindered its ability to campaign, although Kenyatta's government officially disavowed this violence.[427] KANU retained the support of all national newspapers and the government-owned radio and television stations.[428] Of the 29 defectors, only nine were re-elected on the KPU ticket;[429] Odinga was among them, having retained his Central Nyanza seat with a high majority.[430] Odinga was replaced as vice president by Joseph Murumbi,[431] who in turn would be replaced by Moi.[432]
In July 1969, Mboya—a prominent and popular Luo KANU politician—was assassinated by a Kikuyu.[433] Kenyatta had reportedly been concerned that Mboya, with U.S. backing, could remove him from the presidency,[434] and across Kenya there were suspicions voiced that Kenyatta's government was responsible for Mboya's death.[431] The killing sparked tensions between the Kikuyu and other ethnic groups across the country,[435] with riots breaking out in Nairobi.[426] In October 1969, Kenyatta visited Kisumu, located in Luo territory, to open a hospital. On being greeted by a crowd shouting KPU slogans, he lost his temper. When members of the crowd started throwing stones, Kenyatta's bodyguards opened fire on them, killing and wounding several.[436] In response to the rise of KPU, Kenyatta had introduced oathing, a Kikuyu cultural tradition in which individuals came to Gatundu to swear their loyalty to him.[437] Journalists were discouraged from reporting on the oathing system, and several were deported when they tried to do so.[438] Many Kenyans were pressured or forced to swear oaths, something condemned by the country's Christian establishment.[439] In response to the growing condemnation, the oathing was terminated in September 1969,[440] and Kenyatta invited leaders from other ethnic groups to a meeting in Gatundu.[441]
Kenyatta's government resorted to un-democratic measures to restrict the opposition.
Illness and death
For many years, Kenyatta had suffered health problems. He had a mild stroke in 1966,[451] and a second in May 1968.[452] He suffered from gout and heart problems, all of which he sought to keep hidden from the public.[453] By 1970, he was increasingly feeble and senile,[454] and by 1975 Kenyatta had—according to Maloba—"in effect ceased to actively govern".[455] Four Kikuyu politicians—Koinange, James Gichuru, Njoroge Mungai, and Charles Njonjo—formed his inner circle of associates, and he was rarely seen in public without one of them present.[456] This clique faced opposition from KANU back-benchers spearheaded by Josiah Mwangi Kariuki. In March 1975 Kariuki was kidnapped, tortured, and murdered, and his body was dumped in the Ngong Hills.[457] After Kariuki's murder, Maloba noted, there was a "noticeable erosion" of support for Kenyatta and his government.[458] Thenceforth, when the president spoke to crowds, they no longer applauded his statements.[459]
In 1977, Kenyatta had several further strokes or heart attacks.
Kenyatta's succession had been an issue of debate since independence,[467] and Kenyatta had not unreservedly nominated a successor.[452] The Kikuyu clique surrounding him had sought to amend the constitution to prevent vice president Moi—who was from the Kalenjin people rather than the Kikuyu—from automatically becoming acting president, but their attempts failed amid sustained popular and parliamentary opposition.[468] After Kenyatta's death, the transition of power proved smooth,[467] surprising many international commentators.[469] As vice president, Moi was sworn in as acting president for a 90-day interim period.[470] In October he was unanimously elected KANU President and subsequently declared President of Kenya itself.[471] Moi emphasised his loyalty to Kenyatta—"I followed and was faithful to him until his last day, even when his closest friends forsook him"—and there was much expectation that he would continue the policies inaugurated by Kenyatta.[472] He nevertheless criticised the corruption, land grabbing, and capitalistic ethos that had characterised Kenyatta's period and expressed populist tendencies by emphasizing a closer link to the poor.[473] In 1982 he would amend the Kenyan constitution to create a de jure one-party state.[474]
Political ideology
"Kenyatta possessed the common touch and great leadership qualities. He was essentially a moderate trying to achieve the radical revolution of a nationalist victory in a colonialist society, and his ambivalence over many issues can best be explained by his need to contain or use his militants—and he had plenty of them. They were impatient and wanted to see effective action. Kenyatta certainly knew how to appeal to African sentiments."
—Kenyatta biographer Guy Arnold[475]
Kenyatta was an African nationalist,[476] and was committed to the belief that European colonial rule in Africa must end.[477] Like other anti-colonialists, he believed that under colonialism, the human and natural resources of Africa had been used not for the benefit of Africa's population but for the enrichment of the colonisers and their European homelands.[477] For Kenyatta, independence meant not just self-rule, but an end to the colour bar and to the patronising attitudes and racist slang of Kenya's white minority.[478] According to Murray-Brown, Kenyatta's "basic philosophy" throughout his life was that "all men deserved the right to develop peacefully according to their own wishes".[479] Kenyatta expressed this in his statement that "I have stood always for the purposes of human dignity in freedom, and for the values of tolerance and peace."[480] This approach was similar to the Zambian President Kenneth Kaunda's ideology of "African humanism".[479]
Murray-Brown noted that "Kenyatta had always kept himself free from ideological commitments",[328] while the historian William R. Ochieng observed that "Kenyatta articulated no particular social philosophy".[481] Similarly, Assensoh noted that Kenyatta was "not interested in social philosophies and slogans".[482] Several commentators and biographers described him as being politically conservative,[483] an ideological viewpoint likely bolstered by his training in functionalist anthropology.[484] He pursued, according to Maloba, "a conservatism that worked in concert with imperial powers and was distinctly hostile to radical politics".[485]
Kenyatta biographer Guy Arnold described the Kenyan leader as "a pragmatist and a moderate", noting that his only "radicalism" came in the form of his "nationalist attack" on imperialism.[486] Arnold also noted that Kenyatta "absorbed a great deal of the British approach to politics: pragmatism, only dealing with problems when they become crises, [and] tolerance as long as the other side is only talking".[487] Donald Savage noted that Kenyatta believed in "the importance of authority and tradition", and that he displayed "a remarkably consistent view of development through self-help and hard work".[488] Kenyatta was also an elitist and encouraged the emergence of an elite class in Kenya.[489] He wrestled with a contradiction between his conservative desire for a renewal of traditional custom and his reformist urges to embrace Western modernity.[490] He also faced a contradiction between his internal debates on Kikuyu ethics and belief in tribal identity with his need to create a non-tribalised Kenyan nationalism.[490]
Views on Pan-Africanism and socialism
While in Britain, Kenyatta made political alliances with individuals committed to Marxism and to radical Pan-Africanism, the idea that African countries should politically unify;[491] some commentators have posthumously characterised Kenyatta as a Pan-Africanist.[492] Maloba observed that during the colonial period Kenyatta had embraced "radical Pan African activism" which differed sharply from the "deliberate conservative positions, especially on the question of African liberation" that he espoused while Kenya's leader.[493] As leader of Kenya, Kenyatta published two collected volumes of his speeches: Harambee and Suffering Without Bitterness.[494] The material included in these publications was carefully selected so as to avoid mention of the radicalism he exhibited while in Britain during the 1930s.[495]
Kenyatta had been exposed to Marxist-Leninist ideas through his friendship with Padmore and the time spent in the Soviet Union,[496] but had also been exposed to Western forms of liberal democratic government through his many years in Britain.[328] He appears to have had no further involvement with the communist movement after 1934.[497] As Kenya's leader, Kenyatta rejected the idea that Marxism offered a useful framework for analysing his country's socio-economic situation.[498] The academics Bruce J. Berman and John M. Lonsdale argued that Marxist frameworks for analysing society influenced some of his beliefs, such as his view that British colonialism had to be destroyed rather than simply reformed.[499] Kenyatta nevertheless disagreed with the Marxist attitude that tribalism was backward and retrograde;[500] his positive attitude toward tribal society frustrated some of Kenyatta's Marxist Pan-Africanist friends in Britain, among them Padmore, James, and T. Ras Makonnen, who regarded it as parochial and un-progressive.[501]
Assensoh suggested that Kenyatta initially had socialist inclinations but "became a victim of capitalist circumstances";[502] conversely, Savage stated that "Kenyatta's direction was hardly towards the creation of a radical new socialist society",[503] and Ochieng called him "an African capitalist".[481] When in power, Kenyatta displayed a preoccupation with individual and mbari land rights that were at odds with any socialist-oriented collectivisation.[503] According to Maloba, Kenyatta's government "sought to project capitalism as an African ideology, and communism (or socialism) as alien and dangerous".[504]
Personality and personal life
"Ever a showman, [Kenyatta] could appear one moment in gaily coloured shirts, decorated with the cock of KANU, and the next in elegant suits from Savile Row, seldom without a rose in his buttonhole; he could be photographed in leopard-skin hat and cloak waving a silver fly-whisk or in old slacks on his farm tending his shrubs; he was equally at home in academic robes at a university function and in sandals and shorts on the beach at Mombasa. African exuberance and love of display found perfect expression in Kenyatta's flair alongside the dignity and respect due to 'His Excellency, the President, Mzee Jomo Kenyatta'."
—Kenyatta biographer Jeremy Murray-Brown[297]
Kenyatta was a flamboyant character,[505] with an extroverted personality.[31] According to Murray-Brown, he "liked being at the centre of life",[506] and was always "a rebel at heart" who enjoyed "earthly pleasures".[507] One of Kenyatta's fellow LSE students, Elspeth Huxley, referred to him as "a showman to his finger tips; jovial, a good companion, shrewd, fluent, quick, devious, subtle, [and] flesh-pot loving".[122] Kenyatta liked to dress elaborately; throughout most of his adult life, he wore finger rings and while studying at university in London took to wearing a fez and cloak and carrying a silver-topped black cane.[506] He adopted his surname, "Kenyatta", after the name of a beaded belt he often wore in early life.[508] As President he collected a variety of expensive cars.[306]
Murray-Brown noted that Kenyatta had the ability to "appear all things to all men",[186] also displaying a "consummate ability to keep his true purposes and abilities to himself", for instance concealing his connections with communists and the Soviet Union both from members of the British Labour Party and from Kikuyu figures at home.[509] This deviousness was sometimes interpreted as dishonesty by those who met him.[510] Referring to Kenyatta's appearance in 1920s Kenya, Murray-Brown stated the leader presented himself to Europeans as "an agreeable if somewhat seedy 'Europeanized' native" and to indigenous Africans as "a sophisticated man-about-town about whose political earnestness they had certain reservations".[58]
Simon Gikandi argued that Kenyatta, like some of his contemporaries in the Pan-African movement, was an "Afro-Victorian", someone whose identity had been shaped "by the culture of colonialism and colonial institutions", especially those of the Victorian era.[511] During the 1920s and 1930s, Kenyatta cultivated the image of a "colonial gentleman";[512] in England, he displayed "pleasant manners" and a flexible attitude in adapting to urban situations dissimilar to the lands he had grown up in.[513] A. R. Barlow, a member of the Church of Scotland Mission at Kikuyu, met with Kenyatta in Britain, later relating that he was impressed by how Kenyatta could "mix on equal terms with Europeans and to hold his end up in spite of his handicaps, educationally and socially."[514] The South African Peter Abrahams met Kenyatta in London, noting that of all the black men involved in the city's Pan-Africanist movement, he was "the most relaxed, sophisticated and 'westernized' of the lot of us".[515] As President, Kenyatta often reminisced nostalgically about his time in England, referring to it as "home" on several occasions.[240] Berman and Lonsdale described his life as being preoccupied with "a search for the reconciliation of the Western modernity he embraced and an equally valued Kikuyuness he could not discard".[516] Gikandi argued that Kenyatta's "identification with Englishness was much more profound than both his friends and enemies have been willing to admit".[517]
Kenyatta has also been described as a talented orator, author, and editor.[516] He had dictatorial and autocratic tendencies,[518] as well as a fierce temper that could emerge as rage on occasion.[519] Murray-Brown noted that Kenyatta could be "quite unscrupulous, even brutal" in using others to get what he wanted,[520] but he never displayed any physical cruelty or nihilism.[521] Kenyatta had no racist impulses regarding white Europeans, as can, for instance, be seen through his marriage to a white English woman.[521] He told his daughter "the English are wonderful people to live with in England."[487] He welcomed white support for his cause, so long as it was generous and unconditional, and spoke of a Kenya in which indigenous Africans, Europeans, Arabs, and Indians could all regard themselves as Kenyans, working and living alongside each other peacefully.[522] Despite this, Kenyatta exhibited a general dislike of Indians, believing that they exploited indigenous Africans in Kenya.[523]
"I do not think I am—and have never been—an enemy of Europeans or the white people, because I have spent many years in England or in Europe, and even today I have many friends in various nations."
—Kenyatta, April 1961[524]
Kenyatta was a polygamist.
During his trial, Kenyatta described himself as a Christian
Legacy
Within Kenya, Kenyatta came to be regarded as the "Father of the Nation",
After 1963, Maloba noted, Kenyatta became "about the most admired post-independence African leader" on the world stage, one who Western countries hailed as a "beloved elder statesman."[542] His opinions were "most valued" both by conservative African politicians and by Western leaders.[543] On becoming Kenya's leader, his anti-communist positions gained favour in the West,[544] and some pro-Western governments gave him awards; in 1965 he, for instance, received medals from both Pope Paul VI and from the South Korean government.[545]
In 1974, Arnold referred to Kenyatta as "one of the outstanding African leaders now living", someone who had become "synonymous with Kenya".[546] He added that Kenyatta had been "one of the shrewdest politicians" on the continent,[518] regarded as "one of the great architects of African nationalist achievement since 1945".[547] Kenneth O. Nyangena characterised him as "one of the greatest men of the twentieth century", having been "a beacon, a rallying point for suffering Kenyans to fight for their rights, justice and freedom" whose "brilliance gave strength and aspiration to people beyond the boundaries of Kenya".[548] In 2018, Maloba described him as "one of the legendary pioneers of modern African nationalism".[549] In their examination of his writings, Berman and Lonsdale described him as a "pioneer" for being one of the first Kikuyu to write and publish; "his representational achievement was unique".[550]
Domestic influence and posthumous assessment
Maxon noted that in the areas of health and education, Kenya under Kenyatta "achieved more in a decade and a half than the colonial state had accomplished in the preceding six decades."[551] By the time of Kenyatta's death, Kenya had gained higher life expectancy rates than most of Sub-Saharan Africa.[551] There had been an expansion in primary, secondary, and higher education, and the country had taken what Maxon called "giant steps" toward achieving its goal of universal primary education for Kenyan children.[551] Another significant success had been in dismantling the colonial-era system of racial segregation in schools, public facilities, and social clubs peacefully and with minimal disruption.[551]
During much of his life, Kenya's white settlers had regarded Kenyatta as a malcontent and an agitator;[552] for them, he was a figure of hatred and fear.[542] As noted by Arnold, "no figure in the whole of British Africa, with the possible exception of [Nkrumah], excited among the settlers and the colonial authorities alike so many expressions of anger, denigration and fury as did Kenyatta."[553] As the historian Keith Kyle put it, for many whites Kenyatta was "Satan Incarnate".[554] This white animosity reached its apogee between 1950 and 1952.[555] By 1964, this image had largely shifted, and many white settlers referred to him as "Good Old Mzee".[556] Murray-Brown expressed the view that for many, Kenyatta's "message of reconciliation, 'to forgive and forget', was perhaps his greatest contribution to his country and to history."[480]
To Ochieng, Kenyatta was "a personification of conservative social forces and tendencies" in Kenya.[481] Towards the end of his presidency, many younger Kenyans—while respecting Kenyatta's role in attaining independence—regarded him as a reactionary.[557] Those desiring a radical transformation of Kenyan society often compared Kenyatta's Kenya unfavourably with its southern neighbour, Julius Nyerere's Tanzania.[558] The criticisms that leftists like Odinga made of Kenyatta's leadership were similar to those that the intellectual Frantz Fanon had made of post-colonial leaders throughout Africa.[559] Drawing upon Marxist theory, Jay O'Brien, for instance, argued that Kenyatta had come to power "as a representative of a would-be bourgeoisie", a coalition of "relatively privileged petty bourgeois African elements" who wanted simply to replace the British colonialists and "Asian commercial bourgeoisie" with themselves. He suggested that the British supported Kenyatta in this, seeing him as a bulwark against growing worker and peasant militancy who would ensure continued neo-colonial dominance.[560]
Providing a similar leftist critique, the Marxist writer Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o stated that "here was a black Moses who had been called by history to lead his people to the promised land of no exploitation, no oppression, but who failed to rise to the occasion".[561] Ngũgĩ saw Kenyatta as a "twentieth-century tragic figure: he could have been a Lenin, a Mao Zedong, or a Ho Chi Minh; but he ended up being a Chiang Kai-shek, a Park Chung Hee, or a Pinochet."[562] Ngũgĩ was among Kenyan critics who claimed that Kenyatta treated Mau Mau veterans dismissively, leaving many of them impoverished and landless while seeking to remove them from the centre stage of national politics.[563] In other areas Kenyatta's government also faced criticism; it for instance made little progress in advancing women's rights in Kenya.[564]
Assensoh argued that in his life story, Kenyatta had a great deal in common with Ghana's Kwame Nkrumah.[565] Simon Gikandi noted that Kenyatta, like Nkrumah, was remembered for "initiating the discourse and process that plotted the narrative of African freedom", but at the same time both were "often remembered for their careless institution of presidential rule, one party dictatorship, ethnicity and cronyism. They are remembered both for making the dream of African independence a reality and for their invention of postcolonial authoritarianism."[566] In 1991, the Kenyan lawyer and human rights activist Gibson Kamau Kuria noted that in abolishing the federal system, banning independent candidates from standing in elections, setting up a unicameral legislature, and relaxing restrictions on the use of emergency powers, Kenyatta had laid "the groundwork" for Moi to further advance dictatorial power in Kenya during the late 1970s and 1980s.[567]
In its 2013 report, the
Bibliography
Year of publication | Title | Publisher |
---|---|---|
1938 | Facing Mount Kenya | Secker and Warburg |
1944 | My People of Kikuyu and the Life of Chief Wangombe | United Society for Christian Literature |
1944? | Kenya: The Land of Conflict | Panaf Service |
1968 | Suffering Without Bitterness | East African Publishing House |
1971 | The Challenge of Uhuru: The Progress of Kenya, 1968 to 1970 | East African Publishing House |
Notes
- ^ English: /ˈdʒoʊmoʊ kɛnˈjɑːtə/; Gikuyu pronunciation: [⁽ᶮ⁾dʒɔ̄mɔ̄ kéɲàːtà][1]
References
Footnotes
- ^ Jones 1940, p. vi.
- ^ a b c Murray-Brown 1974, p. 34; Assensoh 1998, p. 38.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 33; Arnold 1974, p. 11; Assensoh 1998, p. 38.
- ^ Archer 1969, p. 11.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 323.
- ^ Archer 1969, pp. 11, 14–15.
- ^ Archer 1969, pp. 13–14, 16; Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Archer 1969, p. 17.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 35.
- ^ a b c d e Murray-Brown 1974, p. 37.
- ^ Archer 1969, p. 11; Murray-Brown 1974, p. 42; Arnold 1974, p. 15.
- ^ Archer 1969, p. 18; Murray-Brown 1974, p. 38.
- ^ Archer 1969, p. 32.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 40, 43.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 46.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 45.
- ^ Archer 1969, p. 28; Murray-Brown 1974, p. 45.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 43.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 50.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 49.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 48.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 50–51; Assensoh 1998, p. 39.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 52.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 52; Assensoh 1998, p. 39.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 53.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 71.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 71; Assensoh 1998, pp. 40–41.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 71–72; Assensoh 1998, p. 41.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 73.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 73; Assensoh 1998, p. 41.
- ^ a b c d e Murray-Brown 1974, p. 74.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 75.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 74–75.
- ^ Archer 1969, pp. 38–39; Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 79, 80.
- ^ a b c Murray-Brown 1974, p. 79.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 79, 96; Assensoh 1998, p. 42.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 91; Assensoh 1998, p. 42.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 92.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 93.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 93–94.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 94–95; Assensoh 1998, p. 42.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 94, 95.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 95.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 95, 96; Assensoh 1998, p. 42.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 96.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 103.
- ^ Arnold 1974, pp. 18–19.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 90; Arnold 1974, pp. 19–20.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 90.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 101.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 105.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 106.
- ^ Assensoh 1998, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Archer 1969, pp. 43, 46; Murray-Brown 1974, p. 110.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 105, 106.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 107–108.
- ^ a b c Murray-Brown 1974, p. 110.
- ^ a b c Murray-Brown 1974, p. 107.
- ^ Archer 1969, p. 46; Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 107, 109; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 17.
- ^ a b c Murray-Brown 1974, p. 109.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 109; Maloba 2018, p. 9.
- ^ Archer 1969, p. 48; Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 111–112; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 23; Maloba 2018, p. 9.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 111–112.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 114.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 118–119.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 119.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 115–116.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 125–126.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 117; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 24.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 116–117.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 117.
- ^ a b c Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 27.
- ^ Beck 1966, p. 318; Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 118–119, 121; Maloba 2018, p. 27.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 120.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 119, 120; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 17; Assensoh 1998, p. 44.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 121–122, 124; Maloba 2018, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 122.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 131.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 125.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 142; Maloba 2018, p. 29.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 144; Maloba 2018, p. 29.
- ^ Beck 1966, p. 312; Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 135–137; Frederiksen 2008, p. 25.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 134, 139.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 143–144; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 25.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 145–146; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 25.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 148.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 178.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 149–151; Arnold 1974, p. 26; Maloba 2018, p. 31.
- ^ Archer 1969, p. 51; Murray-Brown 1974, p. 151.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 153.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 153; Assensoh 1998, p. 51.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 157.
- ^ Archer 1969, p. 51; Murray-Brown 1974, p. 155; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 26; Maloba 2018, p. 59.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 163–165; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 17; Assensoh 1998, p. 44.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 171.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 166.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 167; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 27; Maloba 2018, pp. 69–71.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 70.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 71.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 72.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 73.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 168; Assensoh 1998, p. 45.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 169–170; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 27.
- ^ Polsgrove 2009, p. 6.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 171; Assensoh 1998, p. 45.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 171, 174; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 27.
- ^ Maloba 2018, pp. 74–75.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 176.
- ^ Maloba 2018, pp. 66, 68.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 177.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 64.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 176; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 28; Maloba 2018, p. 62.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 175–176.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 179.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 180; Assensoh 1998, p. 46.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 180.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 181; Assensoh 1998, p. 46.
- ^ Archer 1969, p. 55; Murray-Brown 1974, p. 181; Arnold 1974, p. 28; Assensoh 1998, p. 46.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 180–181; Arnold 1974, p. 28; Maloba 2018, p. 59.
- ^ Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 30.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 187; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 30.
- ^ a b c Murray-Brown 1974, p. 189.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 187; Frederiksen 2008, p. 31.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 181.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 182.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 181, 182.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 199–200; Maloba 2018, p. 63.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 183.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 185.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 186.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 187.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 196–197; Assensoh 1998, p. 53; Maloba 2018, pp. 55–56.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 198; Maloba 2018, p. 58.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 199; Maloba 2018, pp. 47–48.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 203; Maloba 2018, pp. 49, 53–55.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 203.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 204.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 189–190; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 30; Maloba 2018, p. 59.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 190; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 32.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 190–191.
- ^ Berman & Lonsdale 1998, pp. 30, 31; Frederiksen 2008, p. 36.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 191.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 193.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 47; Assensoh 1998; Frederiksen 2008, p. 27.
- ^ Archer 1969, p. 56; Murray-Brown 1974, p. 194; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 31.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 194, 196.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 195.
- ^ Bernardi 1993, pp. 168–169.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 192.
- ^ Frederiksen 2008, p. 36.
- ^ Gikandi 2000, p. 10.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 211.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 209; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 35; Maloba 2018, p. 81.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 210; Maloba 2018, p. 81.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 214; Maloba 2018, p. 81.
- ^ Archer 1969, p. 58; Arnold 1974, p. 30; Maloba 2018, p. 81.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 211; Arnold 1974, p. 30; Maloba 2018, p. 81.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 214; Maloba 2018, p. 84.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 85.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 212; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 35; Lonsdale 2006, p. 95.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 211; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 35.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 211; Maloba 2018, pp. 83–84.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 216–217.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 209–210.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 219; Assensoh 1998, p. 54; Maloba 2018, p. 85.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 219; Assensoh 1998, p. 53.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 220–221.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 220.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974; Assensoh 1998, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 221; Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 37.
- ^ Archer 1969, p. 61; Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 222–223; Maloba 2018, p. 106.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 223; Maloba 2018, p. 106.
- ^ Archer 1969, p. 60.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 222–228.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 230.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 232; Archer 1969, p. 69; Arnold 1974, p. 91; Maloba 2018, p. 114.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 229–230.
- ^ Archer 1969, p. 69; Murray-Brown 1974, p. 230.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 230–231.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 231.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 243.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 247; Archer 1969, p. 67.
- ^ a b c Murray-Brown 1974, p. 242.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 226; Maloba 2018, p. 113.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 233; Archer 1969, p. 70; Arnold 1974, p. 99; Maloba 2018, p. 117.
- ^ a b c Murray-Brown 1974, p. 233.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 234.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 225.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 226.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 227.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 226–227.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 237.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 241.
- ^ a b Arnold 1974, p. 181.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 229.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 244; Maloba 2018, p. 119.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 244.
- ^ Leman 2011, p. 32.
- ^ Lonsdale 2006, p. 98.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 123.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 121.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 243; Arnold 1974, pp. 115, 118; Assensoh 1998, p. 58; Maloba 2018, p. 123.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 248–249.
- ^ Maloba 2018, pp. 124–125.
- ^ Maloba 2018, pp. 120–121.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 253–254, 257.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 257.
- ^ a b c Murray-Brown 1974, p. 258.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 257; Arnold 1974, p. 60.
- ^ a b c d Murray-Brown 1974, p. 259.
- ^ Lonsdale 1990, p. 403.
- ^ a b Assensoh 1998, p. 62.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 258; Arnold 1974, p. 134.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 260; Arnold 1974, p. 142.
- ^ a b Maloba 2018, p. 129.
- ^ Anderson 2005, p. 65.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 262.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 274; Arnold 1974, p. 143; Maloba 2018, p. 129.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 276; Arnold 1974, p. 143; Maloba 2018, p. 129.
- ^ Slater 1956, p. 14; Murray-Brown 1974, p. 274.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 255.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 136.
- ^ a b c Murray-Brown 1974, p. 278.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 279.
- ^ Slater 1956, pp. 26, 252; Murray-Brown 1974, p. 279; Arnold 1974, p. 140; Maloba 2018, p. 135.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 280; Maloba 2018, p. 135.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 280; Maloba 2018, p. 136.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 283–284.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 283, 284; Maloba 2018, p. 139.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 291; Maloba 2018, p. 138.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 294–295.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 289; Maloba 2018, p. 137.
- ^ Arnold 1974, pp. 93, 199.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 145; Leman 2011, pp. 27, 34.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 161.
- ^ a b Arnold 1974, p. 96.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 296; Maloba 2018, p. 140.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 296; Maloba 2018, pp. 140, 143.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 296.
- ^ a b c Murray-Brown 1974, p. 320.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 297.
- ^ Maloba 2018, pp. 153–154.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 144.
- ^ Maloba 2018, pp. 145–146.
- ^ Maloba 2018, pp. 155–156.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 204; Maloba 2018, p. 152.
- ^ Maloba 2018, pp. 147–149.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 147.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 169.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 176.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 287–288.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 299.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 51.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 300; Assensoh 1998, p. 59; Maloba 2018, p. 204.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 300.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 303.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 303; Kyle 1997, p. 49.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 303; Arnold 1974, p. 184; Kyle 1997, p. 50; Assensoh 1998, p. 59.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 304.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 304; Arnold 1974, p. 185.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 182.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 304–305; Kyle 1997, p. 50; Maloba 2018, pp. 182–183.
- ^ Kyle 1997, p. 50.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 304–305.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 306; Kyle 1997, p. 51; Maloba 2018, p. 191.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 186.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 307.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 149.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 307; Arnold 1974, p. 152; Maloba 2018, p. 191.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 308; Arnold 1974, p. 159; Maloba 2018, p. 209.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 308; Arnold 1974, pp. 151–152.
- ^ Maloba 2018, pp. 192–193.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 175; Kyle 1997, p. 52.
- ^ Arnold 1974, pp. 174–175.
- ^ Branch 2017, p. 104.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 176.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 66.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 309.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 187.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 308.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 159; Kyle 1997, p. 55.
- ^ a b Arnold 1974, p. 152.
- ^ Maloba 2018, pp. 209–213.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 215.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 152; Maloba 2018, pp. 217–218.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 220.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 308; Arnold 1974, p. 159; Kyle 1997, p. 56; Maloba 2018, p. 220.
- ^ Maloba 2018, pp. 222–223.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 230.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 234.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 239.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 240.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 308; Kuria 1991, p. 120.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 244.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 308; Arnold 1974, p. 156; Kyle 1997, p. 58; Maloba 2018, pp. 244, 245.
- ^ Lonsdale 2006, p. 99.
- ^ a b c d e f Murray-Brown 1974, p. 315.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 315; Arnold 1974, p. 155.
- ^ Assensoh 1998, p. 24.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 155.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 173; Assensoh 1998, p. 55; Kyle 1997, p. 58.
- ^ a b c Arnold 1974, p. 174.
- ^ Ochieng 1995, p. 95.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 309; Arnold 1974, pp. 65, 67; Maloba 2018, pp. 258–259.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 153.
- ^ a b c d e f Murray-Brown 1974, p. 316.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 309–310; Assensoh 1998, p. 63.
- ^ Kyle 1997, p. 60.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 311.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 310–311.
- ^ Maloba 2017, pp. 153–154.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 154.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 155.
- ^ a b Arnold 1974, p. 157; Maloba 2017, p. 51.
- ^ a b Maloba 2017, p. 52.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 157.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 314–315; Arnold 1974, p. 160; Maloba 2018, pp. 265–266.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 160.
- ^ Gertzel 1970, p. 34; Arnold 1974, p. 160.
- ^ Gertzel 1970, p. 34.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 166; Kyle 1997, p. 60.
- ^ Gertzel 1970, p. 34; Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 314–315; Assensoh 1998, p. 63.
- ^ Gertzel 1970, p. 35.
- ^ Ochieng 1995, p. 94; Gertzel 1970, p. 152.
- ^ Assensoh 1998, p. 20.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 316; Maloba 2017, p. 340.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 313; Assensoh 1998, p. 63.
- ^ a b c d Murray-Brown 1974, p. 312.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 312–313; Assensoh 1998, p. 63.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 168; Ochieng 1995, p. 93; Assensoh 1998, p. 63.
- ^ Maxon 1995, p. 112.
- ^ a b Maxon 1995, p. 115.
- ^ Maxon 1995, p. 138.
- ^ a b Maxon 1995, p. 139.
- ^ a b Maxon 1995, p. 140.
- ^ Maxon 1995, p. 141.
- ^ Maxon 1995, p. 142.
- ^ Ochieng 1995, p. 83.
- ^ Ochieng 1995, pp. 90, 91.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 84; Maxon 1995, p. 115; Maloba 2017, p. 6.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 208.
- ^ a b c Ochieng 1995, p. 85.
- ^ Arnold 1974, pp. 157–158.
- ^ a b c d Arnold 1974, p. 177.
- ^ Ochieng 1995, p. 91.
- ^ Ochieng 1995, p. 83; Assensoh 1998, p. 64; Maloba 2017, p. 77.
- ^ Savage 1970, p. 520; Ochieng 1995, p. 84.
- ^ Ochieng 1995, p. 84; Assensoh 1998, p. 64.
- ^ Ochieng 1995, p. 96.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 171.
- ^ a b c Savage 1970, p. 521.
- ^ Assensoh 1998, pp. 64–65.
- ^ a b c Savage 1970, p. 522.
- ^ a b Assensoh 1998, p. 64.
- ^ Savage 1970, p. 521; Ochieng 1995, p. 85; Maxon 1995, p. 114; Assensoh 1998, p. 64.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 316; Arnold 1974, p. 170.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 114.
- ^ a b Arnold 1974, p. 172.
- ^ Maloba 2017, pp. 215–216.
- ^ Maloba 2017, pp. 236–237.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 241.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 238.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 242.
- ^ Maloba 2017, pp. 242–244.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 236.
- ^ Maloba 2017, pp. 237–238.
- ^ Maloba 2017, pp. 246–247, 249.
- ^ ISSN 0011-3530.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 195.
- ^ a b Arnold 1974, p. 196.
- ^ a b Boone 2012, p. 81.
- ^ a b Boone 2012, p. 82.
- ^ Boone 2012, p. 85; Maloba 2017, p. 251.
- ^ Maxon 1995, pp. 124–125.
- ^ Maxon 1995, pp. 125–126.
- ^ Maxon 1995, p. 126.
- ^ Savage 1970, p. 523; Maloba 2017, p. 91.
- ^ Savage 1970, p. 523.
- ^ Maxon 1995, p. 113.
- ^ Maxon 1995, p. 118.
- ^ Maxon 1995, p. 120.
- ^ Maxon 1995, p. 110.
- ^ Maxon 1995, pp. 126–127.
- ^ a b Maxon 1995, p. 127.
- ^ Maxon 1995, p. 127; Assensoh 1998, p. 147.
- ^ Maxon 1995, p. 128.
- ^ a b Maxon 1995, p. 132.
- ^ a b c Maxon 1995, p. 133.
- ^ Maxon 1995, p. 134.
- ^ Maxon 1995, p. 122.
- ^ Maxon 1995, pp. 123–124.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 167.
- ^ a b Arnold 1974, p. 175.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 178.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 188.
- ^ a b c d Cullen 2016, p. 515.
- ^ Cullen 2016, p. 515; Maloba 2017, p. 96.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 313.
- ^ Arnold 1974, pp. 167–168.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 54.
- ^ Cullen 2016, p. 514.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 296.
- ^ Maloba 2017, pp. 63–65.
- ^ Naim 2005, pp. 79–80.
- ^ Naim 2005, pp. 79–80; Maloba 2017, pp. 190–193.
- ^ Maloba 2017, pp. 172–173.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 167; Assensoh 1998, p. 147.
- ^ Savage 1970, p. 527; Maloba 2017, p. 76.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 177; Maloba 2017, pp. 59–60.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 160; Maloba 2017, pp. 93–94.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 314.
- ^ Boone 2012, p. 84.
- ^ a b c Assensoh 1998, p. 18.
- ^ Assensoh 1998, p. 19.
- ^ Gertzel 1970, p. 32.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 68.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 161; Maloba 2017, p. 105–106.
- ^ Maloba 2017, pp. 70–71.
- ^ Gertzel 1970, p. 32; Savage 1970, p. 527; Murray-Brown 1974, p. 317; Arnold 1974, p. 164; Assensoh 1998, p. 67; Maloba 2017, p. 108.
- ^ Ochieng 1995, pp. 99, 100.
- ^ Gertzel 1970, p. 146.
- ^ a b Gertzel 1970, p. 144.
- ^ Ochieng 1995, p. 98.
- ^ Gertzel 1970, p. 35; Maloba 2017, pp. 110–111.
- ^ Gertzel 1970, p. 35; Maloba 2017, p. 111.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 318.
- ^ Gertzel 1970, p. 147.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 119.
- ^ Savage 1970, p. 527; Maloba 2017, p. 125.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 164.
- ^ a b Assensoh 1998, p. 67.
- ^ Assensoh 1998, p. 67; Maloba 2017, p. 138.
- ^ Savage 1970, p. 529; Murray-Brown 1974, p. 317; Arnold 1974, p. 166; Ochieng 1995, p. 102; Assensoh 1998, p. 67; Maloba 2017, p. 135.
- ^ Ochieng 1995, p. 101.
- ^ Savage 1970, p. 529; Maloba 2017, p. 137.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 319; Maloba 2017, pp. 140–143.
- ^ Savage 1970, pp. 529–530; Murray-Brown 1974, p. 317; Ochieng 1995, pp. 101–102; Maloba 2017, p. 138.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 317.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 318; Maloba 2017, p. 139.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 319; Maloba 2017, p. 139.
- ^ Savage 1970, p. 531; Maloba 2017, p. 140.
- ^ Assensoh 1998, p. 21.
- ^ Assensoh 1998, p. 23.
- ^ Assensoh 1998, pp. 22, 67; Maloba 2017, p. 129.
- ^ Savage 1970, p. 531; Arnold 1974, p. 191; Assensoh 1998, p. 67; Maloba 2017, p. 145.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 191; Assensoh 1998, p. 67; Maloba 2017, p. 145.
- ^ Savage 1970, p. 531; Tamarkin 1979, p. 25; Boone 2012, p. 84.
- ^ Savage 1970, p. 531; Murray-Brown 1974, p. 319.
- ^ Ochieng 1995, pp. 103–104; Assensoh 1998, p. 67.
- ^ Assensoh 1998, p. 68.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 320; Maloba 2017, p. 238.
- ^ a b c d Cullen 2016, p. 516.
- ^ a b Maloba 2017, p. 239.
- ^ Ochieng 1995, p. 103.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 282.
- ^ Ochieng 1995, p. 102.
- ^ Ochieng 1995, p. 103; Maloba 2017, pp. 264–265.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 274.
- ^ Maloba 2017, pp. 274–275.
- ^ Tamarkin 1979, p. 30; Kuria 1991, p. 121; Maloba 2017, p. 305.
- ^ Cullen 2016, pp. 514, 517; Maloba 2017, p. 311.
- ^ Cullen 2016, p. 524.
- ^ Cullen 2016, p. 518.
- ^ Cullen 2016, pp. 524, 526; Maloba 2017, p. 314.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 316.
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- ^ a b Tamarkin 1979, p. 22.
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- ^ Assensoh 1998, p. 29.
- ^ Kuria 1991, p. 121; Assensoh 1998, p. 67; Cullen 2016, p. 521; Maloba 2017, pp. 308, 309.
- ^ Tamarkin 1979, pp. 30–31.
- ^ Tamarkin 1979, pp. 33–34.
- ^ Tamarkin 1979, p. 34.
- ^ Kuria 1991, p. 117.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 105.
- ^ Assensoh 1998, p. 26.
- ^ a b Assensoh 1998, p. 27.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 306.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 321.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 322.
- ^ a b c Ochieng 1995, p. 93.
- ^ Assensoh 1998, p. 25.
- ^ Savage 1970, p. 537; Arnold 1974, p. 156; Assensoh 1998, p. 147; Nyangena 2003, p. 8; Lonsdale 2006, p. 89.
- ^ Lonsdale 2006, p. 94.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 209.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 33.
- ^ a b Arnold 1974, p. 32.
- ^ Savage 1970, p. 537.
- ^ Arnold 1974, pp. 190, 208.
- ^ a b Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 38.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 47.
- ^ Assensoh 1998, p. 27; Nyangena 2003, p. 10.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 201.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 3.
- ^ Maloba 2018, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 312; Assensoh 1998, p. 6.
- ^ Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 29.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 83.
- ^ Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 28.
- ^ Berman & Lonsdale 1998, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 34.
- ^ Assensoh 1998, p. 4.
- ^ a b Savage 1970, p. 535.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 6.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 232.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 184.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 144.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 17.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 165.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 215, 216.
- ^ Gikandi 2000, p. 3.
- ^ Gikandi 2000, p. 9.
- ^ Beck 1966, p. 317.
- ^ Beck 1966, p. 316.
- ^ Gikandi 2000, p. 5.
- ^ a b Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 19.
- ^ Gikandi 2000, p. 6.
- ^ a b Arnold 1974, p. 209.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 215; Arnold 1974, p. 209.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 215.
- ^ a b c Murray-Brown 1974, p. 216.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 223.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, pp. 188–189.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 65.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 23.
- ^ Otieno, Samuel; Muiruri, Maina (6 April 2007). "Wahu Kenyatta Mourned". The Standard. Archived from the original on 12 June 2008.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 110; Maloba 2018, p. 137.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 265.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 269.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 27.
- ^ a b Murray-Brown 1974, p. 130.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 285; Maloba 2018, p. 138.
- ^ Naim 2005, p. 77.
- ^ Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 25.
- ^ Bernardi 1993, p. 175.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 70.
- ^ Murray-Brown 1974, p. 315; Arnold 1974, p. 166; Bernardi 1993, p. 168; Cullen 2016, p. 516.
- ^ Jackson & Rosberg 1982, p. 98; Assensoh 1998, p. 3; Nyangena 2003, p. 4.
- ^ a b Maloba 2018, p. 4.
- ^ Jackson & Rosberg 1982, p. 98.
- ^ Arnold 1974, pp. 192, 195.
- ^ a b Maloba 2018, p. 2.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 196.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 26.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 25.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 9.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 192.
- ^ Nyangena 2003, p. 4.
- ^ Maloba 2018, p. 1.
- ^ Berman & Lonsdale 1998, p. 17.
- ^ a b c d Maxon 1995, p. 143.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 46.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 37.
- ^ Kyle 1997, p. 43.
- ^ Arnold 1974, pp. 197–198.
- ^ Arnold 1974, p. 180.
- ^ Arnold 1974, pp. 192–193.
- ^ Savage 1970, pp. 519–520.
- ^ Savage 1970, p. 518.
- ^ O'Brien 1976, pp. 92–93.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 354.
- ^ Maloba 2017, p. 355.
- ^ Maloba 2017, pp. 350–351, 353.
- ^ Assensoh 1998, p. 65.
- ^ Assensoh 1998, p. 3.
- ^ Gikandi 2000, p. 4.
- ^ Kuria 1991, pp. 120–21.
- ^ "Kenyatta Led Elite in Land Grabbing". Daily Nation. 11 May 2013. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
- ^ Njoroge, Kiarie (20 January 2016). "Kenyatta Family Seeks Approval To For Its Dream City Outside Nairobi". Business Daily. Archived from the original on 10 November 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2016.
- ^ Boone 2012, p. 86.
- ^ Boone 2012, pp. 86–87.
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Further reading
- Delf, George (1961). Jomo Kenyatta: Towards Truth about 'The Light of Kenya'. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-8371-8307-7.
- Elkins, Caroline (2005). Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain's Gulag in Kenya. New York: Henry Holt and Co. ISBN 978-0-8050-7653-0.
- Lonsdale, John (2000). "KAU's Cultures: Imaginations of Community and Constructions of Leadership in Kenya after the Second World War". Journal of African Cultural Studies. 13 (1): 107–124. S2CID 143712816.
- Savage, Donald C. (1969). "Jomo Kenyatta, Malcolm MacDonald and the Colonial Office 1938–39 Some Documents from the P. R. O.". Canadian Journal of African Studies. 3 (3): 615–632. JSTOR 483910.
- Macharia, Rawson (1991). The Truth about the Trial of Jomo Kenyatta. Nairobi: Longman. ISBN 978-9966-49-823-6.
- ISBN 978-1782047926.
- Watkins, Elizabeth (1993). Jomo's Jailor – Grand Warrior of Kenya. Mulberry Books. ISBN 978-0-9528952-0-6.
External links
- A 1964 newsreel from British Pathe of Kenyatta's swearing in as President of Kenya
- The short film Kenyatta Profile (1971) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
- Audio recording of Kenyan President Jomo Kenyatta's independence speech at Uhuru Stadium in Nairobi, Swiss Radio, 12. December 1963 (33 sec, original, no translation)