Kottayam district
Kottayam District | |
---|---|
Clockwise from top: UTC+5:30 (IST) | |
ISO 3166 code | IN-KL |
Vehicle registration | KL-05 Kottayam, KL-33 Changanassery, KL-34 Kanjirappally, KL-35 Pala, KL-36 Vaikom, KL-67 Uzhavoor |
HDI (2005) | 0.796[2] ( High) |
Website | kottayam |
Kottayam (IPA: [koːʈːɐjɐm] ⓘ) is one of 14 districts in the Indian state of Kerala. Kottayam district comprises six municipal towns: Kottayam, Changanassery, Pala, Erattupetta, Ettumanoor, and Vaikom. It is the only district in Kerala that does not border the Arabian Sea or any other Indian state.
The district is bordered by hills in the east, and the
The district's headquarters are based in the city of Kottayam.
Etymology
The name Kottayam is a combination of the words "kotta" and "akam" in the local language of Malayalam, meaning "interior of a fort".
History
Prehistoric period
A substantial portion of Kottayam district may have been under the
Classical Antiquity
Chera dynasty and the Keralaputras of ancient Tamilakam (up to 5th century CE)
Early members of the
The province Kuttanad of the ancient kingdom of Keralaputras included the modern-day districts of
It was during the reign of
Invasions and social transformation from 6th century CE to 800 CE
The ancient Chera empire collapsed due to the continuous invasions carried out by the
Medieval history
The regions included in the modern-day district of Kottayam is described well in the medieval Kerala literature which includes works written in both Malayalam and Sanskrit.[6] The 14th century Sanskrit work Sukasandesam describes about Kaduthuruthy.[6] Similarly the 17th century Sanskrit work Bhramara Sandesam contains details about Kumaranalloor and Vaikom.[6] The 18th century Sanskrit literary work Chathaka Sandesam also contains references to Vaikom.[6]
Unnuneeli Sandesam, a work which belongs to the Malayalam literature written during early decades of the 14th century CE, contains a short geographical and political description of the regions and the medieval feudal states that lied between Kaduthuruthy and Thiruvananthapuram.[6] It contains details about the medieval kingdoms of Thekkumkur (1102–1749) and Vadakkumkur (1102–1750) those together constitute the modern district of Kottayam.[6]
The writings and the records of the Portuguese as well as the Dutch, who visited and interfered in the political affairs of the district after the Age of Discovery (1498 CE), such as the Hortus Malabaricus, contain significant information about the geographical and the political conditions of the region during the late medieval period.[6]
The Chera Perumals of Mahodayapuram (800 – 1102 CE)
The area included in the modern-day district of
The
Inscriptions related to Rama Kulasekhara (1089–1123 CE) of Chera Perumal dynasty can be found at Perunna near Changanassery.[13] The Perunna inscription dates back to the year 1099 CE (the 10th regional year of Rama Kulasekhara).[12]
Thekkumkur dynasty (1102–1749 CE)
The province Vempolinadu (Bimbali Desam) of the Chera Perumals of Mahodayapuram attained political autonomy in 1102 CE following the Chera-Chola wars of the 11th century CE.[6] The Vempolinadu royal family got evolved into two independent branches by the 12th century CE – the southern branch among them later came to be known as the kingdom of Thekkumkur.[6] It included the modern-day Taluks of Changanassery, Kanjirappally, Kottayam, and Thiruvalla.[6] The kings of the Thekkumkur dynasty are described by the titles Bimbaleeshas and Manikandas in the Sanskrit literary works.[6] Vennimala and Manikandapuram were the early headquarters of the Thekkumkur dynasty.[6] Later it was transferred to Thazhathangady near the town of Kottayam.[6] Thazhathangady is one of the places in Kerala where a church, a mosque, and a Hindu temple co-exist together, which points out the religious harmony that existed under the Thekkumkur Rajas.[6] Sometimes the town of Changanassery has also acted as the headquarters of the Thekkumkur dynasty.[6]
The Thekkumkur Rajas were vassals to the Kingdom of Cochin until the mid-18th century CE.[6] Thekkumkur Rajas also allied with the Kingdom of Cochin and the Kingdom of Odanad (Kayamkulam) against the military invasions of the kingdom of Travancore into its northern kingdoms that occurred during the 1740s.[6] As a result, Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma, the architect of the modern Travancore, attacked and annexed the kingdom of Thekkumkur into Travancore in 1749 during the Battle of Changanassery, after his annexation of Kayamkulam in 1746.[6] The Thekkumkur king took refuge in the kingdom of the Zamorin of Calicut following his defeat in the battle.[6]
Vadakkumkur dynasty (1102–1750 CE)
Vadakkumkur was the northern branch of the erstwhile province of Vempolinadu which attained political autonomy in 1102 CE after the collapse of the Chera Perumals of Mahodayapuram.[6] The rulers of this dynasty were also known by the titles Bimbaleeshas and Manikandas in the contemporary Sanskrit works just like their Thekkumkur counterparts.[6] The kingdom of Vadakkumkur included the modern-day Taluks of Ettumanoor and Vaikom along with a portion of the Meenachil Taluk.[6] Kaduthuruthy was the earlier headquarters of the Vadakkumkur dynasty which was later transferred into Vaikom.[6] Vadakkumkur was a vassal state of the Kingdom of Cochin until 1750.[6]
The Portuguese explorers described Vadakkumkur as "The Pepper country" due to the availability and high scale production of good quality pepper there during the 16th century CE.[6] The Dutch Malabar who became an influential power in the territory of Vadakkumkur during the 17th century CE and the first half of the 18th century CE had a trade centre at Vechoor (in Vaikom taluk) in Vadakkumkur.[6] The Kingdom of Kizhmalanadu (1102–1600), which had included the modern-day Taluks of Muvattupuzha and Thodupuzha with its headquarters at Karikode near Thodupuzha, merged with the kingdom of Vadakkumkur around 1600 CE.[6]
Vadakkumkur Raja was also a part of the combined military alliance formed by the kingdoms of Odanad (Kayamkulam), Thekkumkur, and Cochin against the expansion of Travancore into the northern territories.[6] As a result, Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma, the architect of the modern Travancore, attacked and annexed Vadakkumkur in 1750.[6] The Vadakkumkur Raja sought asylum in the kingdom of the Zamorin of Calicut.[6] Later he returned back into Travancore.[6]
Poonjar dynasty (1160–1750 CE)
In 1157 CE,
The Kannan Devan Hills on the High Range region were given on lease on 11 July 1877 by the ruler of the Poonjar dynasty to John Daniel Munroe from London and for tea plantations. The land and the plantations were later resumed by the Government of Kerala through the Kannan Devan Hills (Resumption Of Lands) Act, 1971.[14] However, the act only addressed the issue of sovereignty which was taken over by the State of Kerala with the accession of Travancore to the Union of India. The ownership of the Kannan Devan plantation (125000 acres)leased to John Monroe, and subsequently transferred to Tata Finlay, and finally to Tata Tea was not relinquished by the Poonjar royal family. This was established by a court challenge to the status, which was resolved by a Kerala High Court order in the early 1990s. The order was in favor of the Poonjar royal family establishing ownership.The lease terms are currently being fulfilled with regards to lease payments as per the original deed.
Progress and Social Reformation during the Travancore era (1750–1947)
Entire portion of the modern-day district of Kottayam became part of the erstwhile British princely state of Travancore by 1750 CE.[6] This era marked considerable progress and social reformation in all spheres.[6]
The Church Mission Society press at Kottayam was established in 1821 by Rev. Benjamin Baily, a British missionary, as the first printing press in Kerala.[15] They had also established the CMS College Kottayam in 1815 as the first Western style institute of higher education in India. The region progressed much in its literacy rate by the end of the 19th century CE.[6] It became one of the most literate regions in the British Indian Empire by 1860.[6] Due to its remarkable progress in the fields of literacy, education, and printing, many early newspapers and magazines in Malayalam such as Deepika (1887) and Malayala Manorama (1888) were established in Kottayam.[6]
The same period also saw the commencement of
During the Travancorean administration, the British princely state of Travancore was divided into four revenue divisions- the Northern division headquartered at Kottayam, the Central division headquartered at Kollam, the Southern division headquartered at Thiruvananthapuram, and the High Range division with its headquarters at Devikulam.[17]
Kottayam was the headquarters of the northernmost revenue division in Travancore which included the Taluks of North Paravur, Kunnathunad, Muvattupuzha, Thodupuzha, Meenachil, Changanassery, Kottayam, Vaikom, and Cherthala in 1931.[17]
Post-independence (1947–present)
At the time of the integration of the state of
The erstwhile
As a part of the formation of the new Indian state of Kerala according to the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, many jurisdictional changes were done in the district.[20] Two new Taluks, namely Kanjirappally (from Changanassery and Thiruvalla) and Udumbanchola (from Devikulam and Peerumede) were carved out on 1 October 1956.[20] After a month, a new Taluk called Kuttanad was carved out from Changanassery and Ambalappuzha.[20] The Kuttanad Taluk was transferred into the newly formed Alappuzha district on 17 August 1957.[20] The Taluks of Thodupuzha and Muvattupuzha were transferred into the newly formed Ernakulam district on 1 April 1958.[20]
On 26 January 1972, the three High Range Taluks, namely Devikulam, Udumbanchola, and Peerumede, were separated from Kottayam district to form a new district called Idukki.[21] The district of Kottayam took its current shape on 26 January 1972. Now it contains five Taluks- Changanassery, Kottayam, Vaikom, Meenachil, and Kanjirappally.
The municipality of
Climate
There are no distinct seasons in Kottayam, as it has a tropical climate like that of the rest of Kerala. Humidity is high and rises to about 90% during the rainy season. Kottayam gets rain from two monsoon seasons, the south-west monsoon and the north-east monsoon, and accumulates an average rainfall of around 3600 mm per year. The south-west monsoon starts in June and ends in September, and the north-east monsoon season is from October to November. Pre-monsoon rains from March to May are accompanied by thunder and lightning; the highest rainfall during this period in Kerala is received in Kottayam. December, January, and February are cooler, while March, April, and May are warmer. The highest temperature recorded in Kottayam was 38.5 °C on 6 April 1998, and the lowest was 15 °C on 13 December 2000.[23]
The Kottayam district experienced intense red rainfall in 2001, during which the rain was colored red, yellow, green, and black.[24]
Tourism and wildlife
Kottayam has a network of rivers, backwaters, ancient religious places, and hill stations. Local tourist places include:
- Kumarakom, a tourist destination located near the city of Kottayam. It contains the Kumarakom Bird Sanctuary, which is known for migratory birds.[25]
- Kettuvallams, which are modified into cruise boats and houseboats.[26] Pathiramanal is a small island located in the Vembanad Lake, and is only accessible by boat.[26]
- Ilaveezha Poonchira is a hill station in Kottayam.[27]
- Vagamon is a hill station in Kerala. It is located primarily in the Idukki district, but includes the Meenachil taluk and Kanjirappally taluk as well.[28]
- During the Onam festival in August and September, water boat races are conducted in Kottayam. The major one is the Nehru Trophy Boat Race. The Thazhathangadi boat race in Kummanam is over a century old.
- Vaikom, a historical town.
- Illickal Kallu, the highest point in the Kottayam district.
Malarikkal and Panachikkad in Kottayam is famous for Ambal fest.
Transport
Kottayam is linked by major roads and rail to other prominent cities in Kerala, and also by waterways allowing for waterborne travel. The Kottayam Kumali, Ettumanoor-Ernakulam, Kottayam-Pathanamthitta, Thiruvalla-Kidangoor Central Kerala Bypass, and MC road are the major roads in the district. The nearest airport is the Cochin International Airport. SWTD operates ferry services from different parts of the Kottayam district. The ferry service from Vaikom to Thavanakkadavu in the Alappuzha district is the longest. India's first solar ferry service boat, 'Adhithya', operates from Vaikom.[citation needed]
Administration
Kottayam city is the administrative headquarters of the Kottayam district. The district is divided into two revenue divisions- Kottayam and Pala.[29]
Municipal towns
There are 6 municipal towns in the district. They are:[30]
Villages
Legislative representation
There are three
There are nine Kerala Legislative Assembly seats in Kottayam district.[32]
Sl no. | Constituency | Member | Party | Alliance |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Pala |
Mani C. Kappan | NCP | UDF |
2 | Kaduthuruthy | Monce Joseph |
KEC | UDF |
3 | Vaikom |
C. K. Asha | CPI | LDF |
4 | Ettumanoor | V. N. Vasavan | CPI(M) | LDF |
5 | Kottayam | Thiruvanchoor Radhakrishnan | INC | UDF |
6 | Puthuppally |
Chandy Oommen | INC | UDF |
7 | Changanassery | Job Michael | KC(M) | LDF |
8 | Kanjirappally | N. Jayaraj | KC(M) | LDF |
9 | Poonjar | Sebastian Kulathunkal | KC(M) | LDF |
Taluks
The district is divided into two revenue divisions which together incorporate five Taluks within them.[33]
- Taluks in the Kottayam Revenue Division are:[33]
Changanassery | Kanjirappally | Kottayam[33] |
- Taluks in the Pala Revenue Division are:[33]
Meenachil | Vaikom[33] |
Revenue villages
Kottayam district is divided into 100 revenue villages for the ease and decentralisation of its revenue administration.[34] They are further incorporated into 5 taluks as eludicated below.[34]
Changanassery Taluk
Kanjirappally Taluk
Kottayam Taluk
- Akalakunnam[34]
- Anickad[34]
- Arpookara[34]
- Athirampuzha[34]
- Ayarkunnam[34]
- Aymanam[34]
- Chengalam East[34]
- Chengalam South[34]
- Ettumanoor[34]
- Kaipuzha[34]
- Kooroppada[34]
- Kottayam[34]
- Kumarakom[34]
- Manarcaud[34]
- Meenadam[34]
- Muttambalam[34]
- Nattakom[34]
- Onamthuruthu[34]
- Pampady[34]
- Panachikkad[34]
- Peroor[34]
- Perumbaikad[34]
- Puthuppally[34]
- Thiruvarppu[34]
- Veloor[34]
- Vijayapuram[34]
Meenachil Taluk
- Bharananganam[34]
- Elackad[34]
- Erattupetta[34]
- Kadanad[34]
- Kadaplamattom[34]
- Kanakkary[34]
- Kidangoor[34]
- Kondoor[34]
- Kuravilangad[34]
- Kurichithanam[34]
- Lalam[34]
- Meenachil[34]
- Melukavu[34]
- Monippally[34]
- Moonilavu[34]
- Poonjar[34]
- Poonjar Nadubhagam[34]
- Poonjar Thekkekara[34]
- Thalanadu[34]
- Poovarany[34]
- Puliyannoor[34]
- Ramapuram[34]
- Thalappalam[34]
- Teekoy[34]
- Uzhavoor[34]
- Vallichira[34]
- Veliyannoor[34]
- Vellilappally[34]
Vaikom Taluk
Major Towns
The major towns of the district include:
- Vaikom taluk: Vaikom, Kaduthuruthy, Kallara, Chempu, Njeezhoor, Vadakkemuri
- Kottayam taluk: Kottayam, Pampady, Athirampuzha, Ettumanoor, Chingavanam,Ayarkunnam, Manarcaud, Puthupally,
- Changanasserry taluk: Changanassery, Karukachal, Vazhoor, Vakathanam
- Kanjirappally taluk: Erumeli, Mundakayam
- Meenachil taluk: Kuravilangad, Pala, Bharanaganam, Erattupetta, Theekoy, Ramapuram, Poonjar, Uzhavoor
Economy
Agriculture
Kottayam has a mountainous terrain as well as low-lying areas very close to sea level. Depending on the location, different varieties of food and cash crops are cultivated. Rice is the principal crop extensively cultivated in low-lying regions like Vaikom and Upper Kuttanad. The district occupies third place in the production of rice in Kerala behind Palakkad and Alappuzha. Though it is the staple food of the people, the area under cultivation is dwindling due to more lucrative cash crops like rubber plantations for which Kottayam significantly contributes to the overall rubber production in India. Kottayam is India's largest rubber producer. Rubber trees provide a stable income for farmers and the climate is ideal for rubber plantations. Though the highlands are more suitable, cultivation has spread to almost all regions. Other crops cultivated include tapiocas, coconuts, peppers, and vegetables. To enhance rubber productivity, the government of India has set up a Rubber Board as well as a rubber research institute in Kottayam.[35][36]
Industry
The district lacks refineries, ports, and an airport, which are needed for major industries.[citation needed]Aside from two public sector companies, Hindustan Newsprint at Velloor and Travancore Cements at Nattakom, industries in the district consist mostly of small and medium-size operations. These mainly include the publishing and processing of rubber or latex, and manufacturing of rubber-based products.
Confined mostly to the Vaikom area of the district is an industry of coir processing and making coir products.[citation needed] Consisting of more than twenty cooperatives, it employs around 20,000 people.[citation needed] In the hand-loom sector, eight cooperative societies employ 2,100 persons. The district's forests include varieties of softwood and other varieties of timber providing the raw material for several small enterprises in the production of plywood, packing cases, splints, veneers, and furniture.[citation needed]
The first printing press in Kerala,
Demographics
Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
---|---|---|
1901 | 450,615 | — |
1911 | 488,040 | +0.80% |
1921 | 585,478 | +1.84% |
1931 | 775,069 | +2.84% |
1941 | 942,899 | +1.98% |
1951 | 1,132,478 | +1.85% |
1961 | 1,313,983 | +1.50% |
1971 | 1,539,030 | +1.59% |
1981 | 1,697,442 | +0.98% |
1991 | 1,828,271 | +0.75% |
2001 | 1,953,646 | +0.67% |
2011 | 1,974,551 | +0.11% |
source:[37] |
According to the
Malayalam is the predominant language, spoken by 98.88% of the population. Tamil is spoken by a small minority in urban areas.[41]
Religion
According to the 2011 Indian Census, Hinduism (49.81%) is the largest religion in Kottayam, with a significant Christian minority (43.48%). Syro-Malabar, Orthodox, Jacobites and Pentecostals are the main Christian sects. The Muslim population constitutes 6.41% of the district.[42]
Talukas | Hindus | Christians | Muslims | Others |
---|---|---|---|---|
Meenachil | 39.91 | 52.54 | 7.36 | 0.19 |
Vaikom | 67.62 | 28.72 | 3.41 | 0.25 |
Kottayam | 50.41 | 45.56 | 3.71 | 0.32 |
Changanassery | 47.21 | 45.71 | 6.66 | 0.42 |
Kanjirappally | 46.30 | 39.02 | 14.37 | 0.31 |
The three major religious communities in the Kottayam district are Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam. The Nair Service Society's headquarters are located in the district's town of Perunna, Changanassery. The Mannam memorial, created in memory of social reformer Mannathu Padmanabha Pillai, is also located there.
The headquarters of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (Malankara Church/Indian Orthodox Church), is located in Devalokam, Kottayam. It is the official headquarters of the Malankara Metropolitan and the Catholicos of the East.
The Madhya Kerala Diocese of the Church of South India has its headquarters in Kottayam.
The Knanaya Christian community (both the Catholic and Jacobite factions) also has its headquarters in Kottayam district.
The Thazhathangady Juma Mosque, which is one of the oldest Masjids in the country, is also located at Kottayam.
The pilgrim centers in Kottayam include a number of Hindu temples, Christian churches and Muslim mosques, including:[43]
Hindu temples
- Sabarimala. Erumeli Pettathullalis a notable ritual.
- Vaikom Mahadeva Temple – It is known as the Kasiof the south. The Vaikath Ashtami is held in November and December. Vadakkumpurathupattu is held every 12 years to attract devotees.
- Kodungoor Devi Temple
- Ettumanoor Mahadevar Temple – Annual festival and Ezhunallath are held in this Shiva temple in Kumbham (February to March).
- Panachikkadu Dakshina Mookambilka Saraswathy Devi Temple
- Kumaranalloor Devi Temple – Known for Thrikarthika Deshavilakku. Navarathri and Meena Pooram are the other festivals celebrated at this temple.[citation needed]
- Adithyapuram Sun Temple – It is the only 'Adithya' (Hindu solar deity) shrine in the state.[citation needed]
- Thirunakkara Sree Mahadevar Temple – The temple is situated in the heart of Kottayam city and is built in the traditional architectural styles of Kerala. The temple is about 500 years old and was built by the Thekkumkoor Raja, and occupies about 4 acres of land.
Churches
- St. Georgeis kept here
- Dionysius VI (15th Malankara Metropolitan) are kept here
- Saint Alphonsaare kept here.
- St. Joseph's Church, Mannanam (Syro-Malabar Catholic) – It was built by Kuriakose Elias Chavara. His remains are preserved here.
- St. Mary's Jacobite Syrian Cathedral, Manarcad (Jacobite Orthodox) – Its Ettunompu festivals/perunnals are notable.[44]
- St Thomas Cathedral of Pala – cathedral of the Syro-Malabar Diocese of Pala
- St. Mary's Church, Kottayam—(Kottayam Cheriapalli) (Orthodox) – It was built in 1579 AD with a Kerala and Portuguese style.
- Vimalagiri Cathedral (Latin Catholic) – It was built in the Gothic Architectural style. Cathedral of the Latin Diocese of Vijayapuram
- Marth Mariam Archdeacon Pilgrim Church, Kuravilangad(Syro-Malabar Catholic) – 13 km north of Ettumanoor.
- Mar Sleeva Forane Church, Cherpunkal, (Syro-Malabar Catholic) near Pala.
- Syro-Malabar Archdiocese of Changanassery
- St. Dominic's Cathedral Kanjirappally – cathedral of the Syro-Malabar Diocese of Kanjirappally[citation needed]
- St. Alphonsa Church Payyanithottam – church of the Syro-Malabar Diocese of pala[citation needed]
Mosques
- Thazhathangady Juma Mosque—One of the ancient mosques in India.
- Thangalppara in Kottayam—The mausoleum of Sheikh Fariduddin, and a Muslim pilgrim centre.[45]
Education
The first Western styled college in Kerala was the
- CMS College Kottayam
- Government College, Kottayam[47]
- Government Medical College, Kottayam
- Indian Institute of Information Technology, Kottayam(IIIT-K)
- Indian Institute of Mass Communication, Kottayam (IIMC-K)
- K. R. Narayanan National Institute of Visual Science and Arts
- Kottayam Institute of Technology & Science
- Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala.
- Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Technology, Kottayam (Government Engineering College)
Notable people
- Saint Alphonsa, a canonised saint
- Meenakshi Anoop, a child artist
- K. G. Balakrishnan, the first judge from the state of Kerala to become the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
- Vaikom Muhammad Basheer, Malayalam writer
- Chief minister of Kerala
- Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer, a Malayalam writer
- V. N. Janaki, a Tamil actress and politician
- Janardhanan, actor in India
- Manoj K. Jayan, a Malayalam actor
- Jayaraj, director
- Santhosh George Kulangara, managing director of Safari TV
- K. P. A. C. Lalitha, South Indian actress
- Mamitha Baiju,actress
- Mammootty, an actor
- K. M. Mani, who was the chairman and leader of Kerala Congress (M) which is one of the oldest regional political parties in India.
- Rosemary, Malayalam language poet and translator.[48]
- P. K. Vasudevan Nair, Former Chief Minister, Kerala
- K. R. Narayanan, the former President of India
- Parvathy Omanakuttan, the Miss World 2008 runner-up
- Guinness Pakru, a South Indian actor who is the shortest actor in the world
- Karoor Neelakanta Pillai, writer
- Mannathu Padmanabha Pillai, a social reformer and the founder of Nair Service Society (N.S.S.)
- N. N. Pillai, an Indian playwright, actor, theatre director, and orator.
- Jose Prakash, actor
- Arundhati Roy, an Indian author
- Kottarathil Sankunni, Malayalam writer
- Kalabhavan Shajohn, an actor
- E. C. George Sudarshan, scientist, 9 times Nobel Prize nominee.
- Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran, a Malayalam-language poet and translator
- Abhilash Tomy, sailor
- Rimi Tomy, playback singer in Kerala
- Ponkunnam Varkey, Malayalam writer
- A. R. Raja Raja Varma, a poet
- Vijayaraghavan, an actor
See also
- Demographics of Kottayam district
- Education in Kottayam district
- Tourist attractions in Kottayam district
- Alappuzha district
- Idukki district
- Kottayam
- Poonjar dynasty
- Thekkumkur
- Vadakkumkur
References
- ^ "Who's Who". Official website of Kottayam District. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
- ^ "Kerala | UNDP in India". UNDP.
- ^ "2011 Kottayam Census" (PDF). p. 15,16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 November 2019.
- ^ "Kottayam district to be declared tobacco-free – KERALA – The Hindu". The Hindu. 16 February 2020. Archived from the original on 16 February 2020. Retrieved 16 February 2020.
- ^ "States of poverty: an exploration of the Multidimensional Poverty Index – The Hindu". The Hindu. 29 October 2018.
- ^ ISBN 9788126415885. Retrieved 10 June 2022.
- ISBN 978-1-108-49457-1.
- ^ a b c Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 435.
- ^ Veluthat, Kesavan. "The Temple and the State in Medieval South India." Studies in People's History, vol. 4, no. 1, June 2017, pp. 15–23.
- ^ a b 'Changes in Land Relations during the Decline of the Cera State,' In Kesavan Veluthat and Donald R. Davis Jr. (eds), Irreverent History:- Essays for M.G.S. Narayanan, Primus Books, New Delhi, 2014. 58.
- ^ Rao, T. A. Gopinatha. Travancore Archaeological Series (Volume II, Part II). 8–14.
- ^ a b Narayanan, M. G. S., ed. (2013) [1972]. "Index to Cera Inscriptions". Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 467–70.
- ISBN 9788188765072.
- ^ Kannan Devan Hills (Resumption of Lands) Act, 1971
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 March 2009. Retrieved 11 March 2009.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Handbook of Kottayam district, published by Government of Kerala - ^ "History | Kottayam District, Government of Kerala". Retrieved 8 January 2019.
- ^ a b Pillai, N. Kunjan (1932). Census of India, 1931, VOLUME XXVIII, Travancore, Part-I Report. Trivandrum: Government of Travancore.
- ^ K. M. Mathew, ed. (2006). Manorama Year Book. Malayala Manorama. p. 116.
- ^ a b c d U. Sivaraman Nair (1952). 1951 Census Handbook- Kottayam District (PDF). Trivandrum: Travancore-Cochin Government Press.
- ^ a b c d e M. K. Devassy (1965), 1961 Census Handbook- Kottayam District, Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala and The Union Territory of Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindivi Islands
- ^ M. Vijayanunni, 1981 Census Handbook- Kottayam District, Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
- ^ a b "Kerala's Kottayam only district in India with no poor residents: Niti Ayog index". Times of India. Kottayam. 28 November 2021. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
- ^ http://www.kerala.gov.instatistical/panchayat_statistics2001/ktm_shis.htm[permanent dead link] Climate of Kottayam
- ^ Ramakrishnan, Venkatraman (30 July 2001). "Coloured Rain: A Report on the Phenomenon" (PDF). BBC. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 June 2006. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
- ^ http://www.forest.kerala.gov.in/index.php/kottayam Archived 20 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine [bare URL]
- ^ a b "VEMBANAD LAKE | Kottayam District, Government of Kerala | India".
- ^ "ILAVEEZHAPOONCHIRA | Kottayam District, Government of Kerala | India".
- ^ "Vagamon,Wagamon, Vagamon hill station, Vagamon Heights, Vagamon Hideout".
- ^ "Revenue divisions in Kottayam district". National Informatics Centre, Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, Government of India. Retrieved 13 June 2022.
- ^ "Municipalities | District Kottayam, Government of Kerala | India". Retrieved 13 June 2022.
- ^ "Water surges overnight at Panackapalam". Onmanorama. Retrieved 9 March 2024.
- ^ Niyamsabha official site
- ^ a b c d e "Taluks in Kottayam district". National Informatics Centre, Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, Government of India. Retrieved 13 June 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx "Revenue villages in Kottayam district". National Informatics Centre, Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, Government of India. Retrieved 13 June 2022.
- ^ "Agriculture". Government of Kerala. Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 3 January 2011.
- ^ "naturemagics.com – Diese Website steht zum Verkauf! – Informationen zum Thema naturemagics". ww1.naturemagics.com. Archived from the original on 6 June 2019. Retrieved 6 June 2019.
- ^ Decadal Variation In Population Since 1901
- ^ a b c d e "District Census Hand Book: Kottayam" (PDF). Census of India. Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India.
- ^ US Directorate of Intelligence. "Country Comparison:Population". Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
Slovenia 2,000,092 July 2011 est.
- ^ "2010 Resident Population Data". U. S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 30 September 2011.
New Mexico – 2,059,179
- ^ "Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: Kerala". www.censusindia.gov.in. Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India.
- ^ a b "Table C-01: Population by religious community: Kerala". Census of India. Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India. 2011.
- ^ "District Profile". Archived from the original on 8 September 2019. Retrieved 1 September 2019.
- ^ "St.Mary's Jacobite Syrian Cathedral, Manarcad".
- ^ "Thangalppara, Muslim pilgrim centre, Kottayam".
- ^ CMS College CMS website.
- ^ "Government College Kottayam". Archived from the original on 20 March 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2021.
- ^ "റോസ് മേരി". Kerala Women (in Malayalam). Department of Women and Child Development, Kerala state. 26 March 2021.
Further reading
- U. Sivaraman Nair (1952), 1951 Census Handbook- Kottayam District (PDF), Trivandrum: Travancore-Cochin Government Press
- M. K. Devassy (1965), 1961 Census Handbook- Kottayam District (PDF), Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala and The Union Territory of Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindivi Islands
- Government of India (2014–2015), District Census Handbook – Kottayam (Part-A) 2011 (PDF), Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
- Government of India (2014–2015), District Census Handbook – Kottayam (Part-B) 2011 (PDF), Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala