Livonian War

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Livonian War
Estonia, Livonia, Ingria, Russia
Result Dano–Norwegian, Polish–Lithuanian and Swedish victory
Territorial
changes

Cession of:

Belligerents
Livonian Confederation
 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
(before 1569 the Polish–Lithuanian union)
Denmark–Norway Denmark–Norway
Sweden Kingdom of Sweden
Zaporozhian Cossacks
Principality of Transylvania (after 1577)[1]
Tsardom of Russia
Qasim Khanate
Kingdom of LivoniaCommanders and leaders Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Sigismund II Augustus
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Stephen Báthory
Gotthard Kettler
Denmark Frederick II
Sweden Eric XIV
Sweden John III
Shahghali
Sain-Bulat
Magnus of Livonia

The Livonian War (1558–1583) was fought for control of

Kingdom of Poland
.

From 1558 to 1578, Russia dominated the region with early military successes at

Magnus of Holstein. Magnus attempted to expand his Livonian holdings to establish the Russian vassal state, the Kingdom of Livonia
, which nominally existed until his defection in 1576.

In 1576,

Truce of Plussa, with Sweden gaining most of Ingria
and northern Livonia while retaining the Duchy of Estonia.

Prelude

Pre-war Livonia

Old Livonia
, before the Livonian War:
  Livonian Order
  Bishopric of Courland
  Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek
  Bishopric of Dorpat
  City of Riga
  Archbishopric of Riga

By the mid-16th century, economically prosperous

Roman Catholicism.[5] As war approached, Livonia had a weak administration subject to internal rivalries, lacked any powerful defences or outside support, and was surrounded by monarchies pursuing expansionist policies. Robert I. Frost notes of the volatile region: "Racked with internal bickering and threatened by the political machinations of its neighbours, Livonia was in no state to resist an attack."[6]

The Order's Landmeister and the Gebietigers, as well as the owners of Livonian estates, were all lesser nobles who guarded their privileges and influence by preventing the creation of a higher, more powerful noble class.

Teutonic Order state and in 1525 established himself as duke in Prussia.[9] Wilhelm and Christoph were to pursue Albert's interests in Livonia, among which was the establishment of a hereditary Livonian duchy styled after the Prussian model.[9] At the same time the Order agitated for its re-establishment ("Rekuperation") in Prussia,[10] opposed secularization, and creation of a hereditary duchy.[8]

Aspirations of Livonia's neighbours

By the time the Livonian War broke out, the

entrance to the Baltic Sea,[12] collected requisite tolls,[13] and held the strategically important Baltic Sea islands of Bornholm and Gotland.[12]

A long bar of Danish territories in the south and lack of sufficient year-round ice-free ports severely limited

Sweden's access to Baltic trade.[15] Nevertheless, the country prospered due to exports of timber, iron, and most notably copper, coupled with the advantages of a growing navy[15] and proximity to the Livonian ports across the narrow Gulf of Finland.[16] Before the Livonian War, Sweden had sought expansion into Livonia, but the intervention of the Russian tsar temporarily stalled these efforts through the Russo-Swedish War of 1554–1557, which culminated in the 1557 Treaty of Novgorod.[15]

Through its absorption of the principalities of

marks to keep the Bishopric of Dorpat, based on the claim that every adult male had paid Pskov one mark when it had been an independent state.[18] The Livonians eventually promised to pay this sum to Ivan by 1557, but were sent from Moscow when they failed to do so, ending negotiations.[18] Ivan continued to point out that the existence of the Order required passive Russian support, and was quick to threaten use of military force if necessary.[18] He aimed to establish a corridor between the Baltic and the new territories on the Caspian Sea, because if Russia were to engage in open conflict with major western powers, it would need imports of more sophisticated weaponry.[18]

The Polish King and Lithuanian Grand Duke

Pozvol in September 1557.[16] There they signed the Treaty of Pozvol, which created a mutual defensive and offensive alliance, with its primary target Russia, and provoked the Livonian War.[16]

1558–1562: Dissolution of the Livonian Order

Russian invasion of Livonia

Three Russian campaigns are visible in 1558, 1559 and 1560, all from east to west. One Polish–Lithuanian campaign in 1561 is shown advancing up the central part of Livonia. Refer to the text for details.
Map of campaigns in Livonia, 1558–1560

Ivan IV regarded the

Cossacks,[30] who at that time were mostly armed foot soldiers.[31] Ivan gained further ground in campaigns during the years 1559 and 1560.[29] In January 1559, Russian forces again invaded Livonia.[32] A six-month truce covering May to November was signed between Russia and Livonia while Russia fought in the Russo-Crimean Wars.[33]

Prompted by the Russian invasion, Livonia first unsuccessfully sought help from Emperor

sejm refused to agree to the treaty, believing it to be a matter affecting only the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[16] In January 1560, Sigismund sent ambassador Martin Volodkov to the court of Ivan in Moscow in an attempt to stop the Russian cavalry rampaging through rural Livonia.[35]

Printed woodcarving showing archers using hanged naked women as target practice. Beneath them lie the bodies of children, cut open.
Russian atrocities in Livonia. Printed in Zeyttung published in Nuremberg in 1561.

Russian successes followed similar patterns featuring a multitude of small campaigns, with sieges where musketmen played a key role in destroying wooden defences with effective artillery support.

Pernau (Pärnu).[29] The Livonian knights suffered a disastrous defeat by the Russians at the Battle of Ērģeme in August 1560. Some historians believe the Russian nobility were split over the timing of the invasion of Livonia.[33]

Eric XIV, the new King of Sweden, turned down Kettler's requests for assistance, along with a similar request from Poland. Kettler turned to Sigismund for help.[36] The weakened Livonian Order was dissolved by the second Treaty of Vilnius in 1561. Its lands were secularised as the Duchy of Livonia and Duchy of Courland and Semigallia and assigned to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Kettler became the first Duke of Courland, in doing so converting to Lutheranism.[16] Included in the treaty was the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti by which Sigismund guaranteed the Livonian estates privileges including religious freedom with respect to the Augsburg Confession, the Indygenat, and continuation of the traditional German administration.[37] The terms regarding religious freedom forbade any regulation of the Protestant order by religious or secular authorities.[38]

Some members of the Lithuanian nobility opposed the growing Polish–Lithuanian union and offered the Lithuanian crown to Ivan IV.[39] The Tsar publicly advertised this option, either because he took the offer seriously, or because he needed time to strengthen his Livonian troops.[40] Throughout 1561, a Russo-Lithuanian truce (with a scheduled expiration date of 1562) was respected by both sides.[40]

Danish and Swedish interventions

In return for a loan and a guarantee of Danish protection, Bishop Johann von Münchhausen signed a treaty on 26 September 1559 giving

Duke Magnus of Holstein as bishop, who then took possession in April 1560. Lest Danish efforts create more insecurity for Sweden, Denmark-Norway made another attempt to mediate a peace in the region.[42] Magnus at once pursued his own interests, purchasing the Bishopric of Courland without Frederick's consent and trying to expand into Harrien–Wierland (Harju and Virumaa). This brought him into direct conflict with Eric.[29]

In 1561, Swedish forces arrived and the

Danish Estonia.[40] When Eric XIV's forces seized Pernau (Pärnu) in June 1562, his diplomats tried to arrange Swedish protection for Riga, which brought him into conflict with Sigismund.[40]

Sigismund maintained close relations with Eric XIV's brother,

Catherine, thereby preventing her marrying Ivan IV.[45] While Eric XIV had approved the marriage, he was upset when John lent Sigismund 120,000 dalers and received seven Livonian castles as security.[46] This incident led to John's capture and imprisonment in August 1563 on Eric XIV's behalf, whereupon Sigismund allied with Denmark and Lübeck against Eric XIV in October the same year.[40]

1562–1570

The intervention of Denmark-Norway, Sweden, and Poland-Lithuania into Livonia began a period of struggle for control of the Baltic, known contemporaneously as the

oprichina that began in 1565, leaving Russia in a state of political chaos and civil war.[40]

Russian war with Lithuania

Cannibalism in Lithuania during the Russian invasion in 1571, German plate

When the Russo-Lithuanian truce expired in 1562, Ivan IV rejected Sigismund's offer of an extension.[40] The Tsar had used the period of the truce to build up his forces in Livonia, and he invaded Lithuania.[40] His army raided Vitebsk and, after a series of border clashes, took Polotsk in 1563.[40] Lithuanian victories came at the Battle of Ula in 1564[40] and at Czasniki (Chashniki) in 1567, a period of intermittent conflict between the two sides. Ivan continued to gain ground among the towns and villages of central Livonia but was held at the coast by Lithuania.[53] The defeats of Ula and Czasniki, along with the defection of Andrey Kurbsky, led Ivan IV to move his capital to the Alexandrov Kremlin while the perceived opposition against him was repressed by his oprichniki.[40]

A "grand" party of diplomats left Lithuania for Moscow in May 1566.

zemsky sobor, the Assembly of the Land) to discuss the issues at stake.[55] Within the Assembly, the church's representative stressed the need to "keep" Riga (though it had not yet been conquered),[56] while the Boyars were less keen on an overall peace with Lithuania, noting the danger posed by a joint Polish-Lithuanian state. Talks were then halted and hostilities resumed upon the return of the ambassadors to Lithuania.[55]

In 1569, the

Kiev, an Orthodox coronation, and a hereditary monarchy in parallel to Russia's, with his son, Feodor, as King.[59] The electorate rejected these demands and instead chose Henry of Valois (Henryk Walezy), brother of King Charles IX of France.[60]

Russian war with Sweden

In 1564, Sweden and Russia agreed the

Novgorod in September, following the arrival in Moscow of the ambassadors sent to Sweden in 1567 by Ivan to retrieve Catherine. Ivan refused to meet with the party himself, forcing them to negotiate instead with the Governor of Novgorod.[64] The Tsar requested that Swedish envoys should greet the governor as 'the brother of their king', but Juusten refused to do so. The Governor then ordered an attack on the Swedish party, that their clothes and money be taken, and that they be deprived of food and drink and be paraded naked through the streets.[64] Although the Swedes were also to be moved to Moscow, fortunately for them this occurred at the same time Ivan and his oprichniki were on their way to an assault on Novgorod.[58]

On his return to Moscow in May 1570, Ivan refused to meet the Swedish party, and with the signing of a three-year truce in June 1570 with the Commonwealth he no longer feared war with Poland–Lithuania.[58] Russia considered the delivery of Catherine to be a precondition of any deal, and the Swedes agreed to meet in Novgorod to discuss the matter.[58] According to Juusten, at the meeting the Russians demanded the Swedes to abandon their claim to Reval (Tallinn), provide two or three hundred cavalry when required, pay 10,000 thaler in direct compensation, surrender Finnish silver mines near the border with Russia, and allow the Tsar to style himself "Lord of Sweden". The Swedish party left following an ultimatum from Ivan that Sweden should cede its territory in Livonia or there would be war.[65] Juusten was left behind while John rejected Ivan's demands, and war broke out anew.[66]

Impact of the Northern Seven Years' War

Quarrels between Denmark-Norway and Sweden led to the

Pontus de la Gardie,[68] who thereafter became an important Swedish commander in the Livonian War.[69] Livonia was also affected by the naval campaign of Danish admiral Peder Munk, who bombarded Swedish Reval (Tallinn) from sea in July 1569.[70]

The Treaty of Stettin made Denmark the supreme and dominating power in Northern Europe, yet failed to restore the Kalmar Union. Unfavourable conditions for Sweden led to a series of conflicts that only ended with the Great Northern War in 1720.[71] Sweden agreed to turn over her possessions in Livonia in return for a payment by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II. Maximilian failed to pay the promised compensation, however, and thereby lost his influence on Baltic affairs.[71] The terms of the treaty regarding Livonia were ignored, and thus the Livonian War continued.[72] From Ivan's point of view, the treaty enabled the powers involved to form an alliance against him, now that they were no longer fighting each other.[73]

1570–1577: Russian dominance and the Kingdom of Livonia

Russian atrocities in 1577.
Map of Livonia in 1573.
Map showing areas of Russian and Polish–Lithuanian forces, 1570–1577.
  occupied by Russian forces in 1570
  occupied by Russian forces 1572–1577
  occupied by Lithuanian forces

During the early 1570s, King John III of Sweden faced a Russian offensive on his positions in Estonia.

Helsingfors (Helsinki) in 1572. A two-year truce on this front was signed in 1575.[77]

John's counter-offensive stalled at the

Hapsal, Leal, and Lode as security, but when he failed to pay they were sold to Denmark.[77]

Meanwhile, efforts by

Magnus to besiege Swedish-controlled Reval (Tallinn) were faltering, with support from neither Ivan nor Magnus' brother, Frederick II of Denmark forthcoming.[73] Ivan's attention was focused elsewhere, while Frederick's reluctance perhaps stemmed from a new spirit of Swedish–Danish unity that made him unwilling to invade Livonia on behalf of Magnus, whose state was a vassal of Russia. The siege was abandoned in March 1571,[73] whereupon Swedish action in the Baltic escalated, with the passive backing of Sigismund, John's brother-in-law.[73]

At the same time Crimean Tatars devastated Russian territories and burned and looted Moscow during the Russo-Crimean Wars.[74] Drought and epidemics had fatally affected the Russian economy while oprichnina had thoroughly disrupted the government. Following the defeat of Crimean and Nogai forces in 1572, oprichnina was wound down and with it the way Russian armies were formed also changed.[80] Ivan IV had introduced a new strategy whereby he relied on tens of thousands of native troops, Cossacks and Tatars instead of a few thousand skilled troops and mercenaries, as was the practice of his adversaries.[81]

Ivan's campaign reached its height in 1576 when another 30,000 Russian soldiers crossed into Livonia in 1577[62] and devastated Danish areas in retaliation for the Danish acquisition of Hapsal, Leal, and Lode. Danish influence in Livonia ceased, as Frederick accepted deals with Sweden and Poland to end nominal Danish involvement.[82] Swedish forces were besieged in Reval (Tallinn) and central Livonia raided as far as Dünaburg (Daugavpils), formally under Polish–Lithuanian control since the 1561 Treaty of Vilnius.[78] The conquered territories submitted to Ivan or his vassal, Magnus,[78] declared monarch of the Kingdom of Livonia in 1570.[62] Magnus defected from Ivan IV during the same year,[83] having started to appropriate castles without consulting the Tsar. When Kokenhusen (Koknese) submitted to Magnus to avoid fighting Ivan IV's army, the Tsar sacked the town and executed its German commanders.[62] The campaign then focussed on Wenden (Cēsis, Võnnu), "the heart of Livonia", which as the former capital of the Livonian Order was not only of strategic importance, but also symbolic of Livonia itself.[78]

1577–1583: Defeat of Russia

Swedish and Polish–Lithuanian alliance and counter-offensives

Coloured illustration. The city, central is being attacked by a group of knights and cannon from the east, and large numbers of foot soldiers from the north. Some citizens appear to be surrendering to the foot soldiers.
The siege of Polotsk, 1579, in a contemporary illustration.
See text and the article The campaigns of Stephen Báthory for further information.
The campaigns of Stephen Báthory, the bold line marks the border by 1600.

In 1576, the

zlotys.[86] For a further 200,000 zloty payment, he appointed Hohenzollern George Frederick as administrator of Prussia and secured the latter's military support in the planned campaign against Russia.[86]

Báthory received only few soldiers from his Polish vassals and was forced to recruit mercenaries, primarily Poles, Hungarians, Bohemians, Germans, and Wallachians. A separate Szekler brigade fought in Livonia.[1]

Swedish King John III and Stephen Báthory allied against Ivan IV in December 1577, despite problems caused by the death of Sigismund which meant that the issue of the substantial inheritance due to John's wife, Catherine, had not been resolved.[87] Poland also claimed the whole of Livonia, without accepting Swedish rule of any part of it.[87] The 120,000 daler lent in 1562 had still not been repaid, despite Sigismund's best intentions to settle it.[87]

By November, Lithuanian forces moving northward had captured Dünaburg

Novgorod among others. In September, Ivan responded by sending in an army of 18,000 men, who recaptured Oberpahlen (Põltsamaa) from Sweden and then marched on Wenden.[88][89] Upon their arrival at Wenden, the Russian army laid siege to the town, but was met by a relief force of around 6,000 German, Polish, and Swedish soldiers.[89] In the ensuing Battle of Wenden, Russian casualties were severe with armaments and horses captured, leaving Ivan IV with his first serious defeat in Livonia.[89]

Báthory accelerated the formation of the

Truce of Jam Zapolski.[90]

The failure of the Swedish siege of Narva in 1579 led to

Kexholm and Padise were taken by Swedish forces in 1580,[92] then in 1581, concurrent with the fall of Wesenberg, a mercenary army hired by Sweden recaptured the strategic city of Narva.[92] A target of John III's campaigns, since it could be attacked by both land and sea, the campaign made use of Sweden's considerable fleet[93] but later arguments over formal control in the long term hampered any alliance with Poland.[93] Following la Gardie's taking of the city, and in retaliation for previous Russian massacres,[94] 7,000 Russians were killed according to Russow's contemporary chronicle.[95] The fall of Narva was followed by those of Ivangorod, Jama, and Koporye,[96] leaving Sweden content with its gains in Livonia.[96]

Truces of Jam Zapolski and Plussa

Division of Livonia by 1600:
  Poland–Lithuania
  Vassal duchies of Poland–Lithuania
  Russia
  Kingdom of Sweden
  Denmark-Norway

Subsequent negotiations led by

Truce of Jam Zapolski between Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[96] This was a humiliation for the Tsar, in part because he requested the truce.[96] Under the agreement Russia would surrender all areas in Livonia it still held and the city of Dorpat (Tartu) to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, while Polotsk would remain under Commonwealth control. Any captured Swedish territory—specifically Narva—could be retained by the Russians and Velike Luki would be returned from Báthory's control to Russia.[96] Possevino made a half-hearted attempt to get John III's wishes taken into consideration, but this was vetoed by the Tsar, probably in collusion with Báthory.[96] The armistice, which fell short of a full peace arrangement, was to last ten years and was renewed twice, in 1591 and 1601.[97] Báthory failed in his attempts to pressure Sweden into relinquishing its gains in Livonia, particularly Narva.[96]

Following a decision by John, the war with Russia ended when the Tsar concluded the

Truce of Plussa (Plyussa, Pljussa, Plusa) with Sweden on 10 August 1583.[96][98] Russia relinquished most of Ingria, leaving Narva and Ivangorod as well under Swedish control.[98] Originally scheduled to last three years, the Russo-Swedish truce was later extended until 1590.[98] During the negotiations, Sweden made vast demands for Russian territory, including Novgorod. Whilst these conditions were probably only for the purposes of negotiation, they may have reflected Swedish aspirations of territory in the region.[96]

Aftermath

The post-war

Roman Catholic Church revenues and estates confiscated from Protestants as well as initiating a largely unsuccessful recruitment campaign for Catholic colonists.[101] Despite these measures, the Livonian population did not convert en masse, while the Livonian estates in Poland–Lithuania were alienated.[101]

Map showing Sweden in the Baltic, 1560 to 1721. Dates are those of occupation, and those in brackets dates of loss.

In 1590, the Russo-Swedish truce of Plussa expired and fighting resumed

Kexholm to Russia.[102] The Swedish–Polish alliance began to crumble when the Polish King and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund III, who as son of John III of Sweden (died 1592) and Catherine Jagellonica, was the successor to the Swedish throne, met with resistance from a faction led by his uncle, Charles of Södermanland (later Charles IX), who claimed regency in Sweden for himself.[102] Sweden descended into a civil war in 1597, followed by the 1598–1599 war against Sigismund, which ended with the deposition of Sigismund by the Swedish riksdag.[102]

Local nobles turned to Charles for protection in 1600 when the conflict spread to Livonia, where Sigismund had tried to incorporate

Treaty of Altmark.[108]

The

Peace of Oliva and the Treaty of Copenhagen, both in 1660.[110] The situation remained unchanged until 1710 when Estonia and Livonia capitulated to Russia during the Great Northern War, an action formalised in the Treaty of Nystad (1721).[111]

See also

Notes

  1. Hochmeister, an office that since 1525 had been executed by the Deutschmeister responsible for the bailiwicks in the Holy Roman Empire
    ; the Order's organisation in Livonia was led by a circle of Gebietigers headed by a Landmeister elected from amongst the membership
  2. ^ De Madariaga 2006, p. 128 says Narva in May and Dorpat in July.

References

  1. ^ a b Liptai 1984, p. [page needed].
  2. ^ a b c d Rabe 1989, p. 306
  3. ^ Dybaś 2009, p. 193
  4. ^ a b c Bülow 2003, p. 73
  5. ^ Kreem 2006, pp. 46, 51–53
  6. ^ Frost 2000, p. 2
  7. ^ Kreem 2006, p. 50
  8. ^ a b Kreem 2006, p. 51
  9. ^ a b Körber 1998, p. 26
  10. ^ Kreem 2006, p. 46
  11. ^ a b Frost 2000, p. 3
  12. ^ a b c Frost 2000, p. 5
  13. ^ a b Frost 2000, p. 6
  14. ^ Frost 2000, p. 4
  15. ^ a b c Frost 2000, p. 7
  16. ^ a b c d e Bain 1971, p. 84
  17. ^ Frost 2000, p. 10
  18. ^ a b c d e De Madariaga 2006, p. 124
  19. ^ Cynarski 2007, pp. 203–204
  20. ^ a b Hartmann 2005, p. XIII
  21. ^ Cynarski 2007, p. 204
  22. ^ a b c d Hartmann 2005, p. XIV
  23. ^ a b Hartmann 2005, p. XV
  24. ^ De Madariaga 2006, p. 127
  25. ^ Cynarski 2007, p. 205
  26. ^ Oakley 1993, p. 26 (online)
  27. ^ Frost 2000, p. 24
  28. ^ De Madariaga 2006, p. 128
  29. ^ a b c d e f Frost 2000, p. 25
  30. ^ a b Stevens 2007, p. 85
  31. ^ Frost 2000, p. 50
  32. ^ De Madariaga 2006, p. 129
  33. ^ a b De Madariaga 2006, p. 130
  34. ^ Cynarski 2007, p. 207
  35. ^ Bain 1971, p. 117
  36. ^ Bain 2006, p. 118 (online)
  37. ^ a b Tuchtenhagen 2005, p. 36
  38. ^ a b Kahle 1984, p. 17
  39. ^ Frost 2000, pp. 25–26
  40. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Frost 2000, p. 26
  41. ^ Pauker 1854, p. 289
  42. ^ Bain 2006, p. 56
  43. ^ Eriksson 2007, pp. 45–46
  44. ^ a b Elliott 2000, p. 14 (online)
  45. ^ Oakley 1993, p. 27 (online)
  46. ^ Roberts 1968, p. 209 (online)
  47. ^ Oakley 1993, p. 24 (online)
  48. ^ Frost 2000, p. 77
  49. ^ Frost 2000, p. 30ff
  50. ^ Hübner 1998, pp. 317–318
  51. ^ Hübner 1998, p. 318
  52. ^ Frost 2000, pp. 26–27
  53. ^ Bain 1971, p. 123
  54. ^ a b De Madariaga 2006, p. 195
  55. ^ a b c d De Madariaga 2006, p. 196
  56. ^ De Madariaga 2006, p. 202 (online)
  57. ^ a b Dybaś 2006, p. 109
  58. ^ a b c d De Madariaga 2006, p. 262
  59. ^ Stone 2001, p. 119 (online)
  60. ^ Bain 1971, pp. 90–91
  61. ^ De Madariaga 2006, p. 192 (online)
  62. ^ a b c d Frost 2000, p. 27
  63. ^ Roberts 1968, p. 255 (online)
  64. ^ a b c De Madariaga 2006, p. 261
  65. ^ De Madariaga 2006, p. 271
  66. ^ De Madariaga 2006, p. 272
  67. ^ a b Frost 2000, pp. 29–37
  68. ^ a b Frost 2000, p. 76
  69. ^ Frost 2000, pp. 44, 51
  70. ^ Frost 2000, p. 36
  71. ^ a b Nordstrom 2000, p. 36
  72. ^ Peterson 2007, p. 90 (online)
  73. ^ a b c d De Madariaga 2006, p. 264
  74. ^ a b c d Peterson 2007, p. 91 (online)
  75. ^ Black 1996, p. 59
  76. ^ Fischer & Kirkpatrick 1907, p. 63
  77. ^ a b c Roberts 1968, p. 258 (online)
  78. ^ a b c d Peterson 2007, pp. 92–93
  79. ^ Frost 2000, p. 51
  80. ^ De Madariaga 2006, pp. 277–278
  81. ^ Peterson 2007, p. 93
  82. ^ Roberts 1968, pp. 258–259 (online)
  83. ^ Oakley 1993, p. 37
  84. ^ a b Stone 2001, p. 122
  85. ^ De Madariaga 2006, p. 310
  86. ^ a b c Stone 2001, p. 123
  87. ^ a b c Roberts 1968, p. 260 (online)
  88. ^ a b c Frost 2000, p. 28
  89. ^ a b c d Peterson 2007, p. 94 (online)
  90. ^ a b c d e f g Stone 2001, pp. 126–127 (online)
  91. ^ Solovyov 1791, p. 174
  92. ^ a b c Roberts 1968, p. 263 (online)
  93. ^ a b Oakley 1993, p. 34
  94. ^ Solovyov 1791, p. 881
  95. ^ Frost 2000, p. 80, referring to Russow, B. (1578): Chronica der Provintz Lyfflandt, p. 147
  96. ^ a b c d e f g h i Roberts 1968, p. 264 (online)
  97. ^ Wernham 1968, p. 393
  98. ^ a b c d Frost 2000, p. 44
  99. ^ Dybaś 2006, p. 110
  100. ^ Tuchtenhagen 2005, p. 37
  101. ^ a b Tuchtenhagen 2005, p. 38
  102. ^ a b c Frost 2000, p. 45
  103. ^ a b c Steinke 2009, p. 120
  104. ^ a b Frost 2000, p. 46
  105. ^ a b c Frost 2000, p. 47
  106. ^ Frost 2000, pp. 62, 64ff
  107. ^ Frost 2000, p. 102
  108. ^ Frost 2000, p. 103
  109. ^ Frost 2000, pp. 103–104
  110. ^ Frost 2000, p. 183
  111. ^ Kahle 1984, p. 18

Sources

Further reading

See also: Bibliography of the history of Poland, Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613), and Bibliography of Ukrainian history

External links
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