Crusade of Varna
Crusade of Varna | |||||||
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Part of Ottoman–Hungarian wars | |||||||
King Władysław III of Poland in the Battle of Varna, by Jan Matejko | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
| Ottoman Empire | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Władysław III † Fruzhin Julian Cesarini † | Murad II |
The Crusade of Varna was an unsuccessful military campaign mounted by several European leaders to check the expansion of the Ottoman Empire into Central Europe, specifically the Balkans between 1443 and 1444. It was called by Pope Eugene IV on 1 January 1443 and led by King Władysław III of Poland, John Hunyadi, Voivode of Transylvania, and Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy.
The Crusade of Varna culminated in a decisive Ottoman victory over the crusader alliance at the Battle of Varna on 10 November 1444, during which Władysław and the expedition's papal legate Julian Cesarini were killed.
Background
In 1428, while the
Meanwhile, Sigismund's successor Albert had died in October 1439, shortly after signing a law to "restore the ancient laws and customs of the realm". The law restricted the royal authority by requiring the participation of landed nobility in political decisions. Four months after Albert's death, his only son Ladislaus the Posthumous was born while Hungary was in the midst of a civil war over the next monarch. On 17 July 1440, Władysław, king of Poland, was crowned despite continuing disputes.[6] John Hunyadi aided Władysław's cause by pacifying the eastern counties, gaining him the position of Nádor of Transylvania and the corresponding responsibility of protecting Hungary's southern border. By the end of 1442, Władysław had secured his status in Hungary, and rejected an Ottoman proposal of peace in exchange for Belgrade.[5]
The
The Crusade
Early fighting
On 1 January 1443,
The crusaders, led by Władysław, Hunyadi, and Branković, attacked in mid-October. They correctly expected that Murad would not be able quickly to mobilize his army, which consisted mainly of fief-holding cavalrymen (timariots) who needed to collect the harvest to pay taxes. Hunyadi's experience of winter campaigns from 1441–1442 added to the Hungarians' advantage. They also had better armor, often rendering the Ottoman weapons useless. Murad could not rely on the loyalty of his troops from Rumelia, and had difficulties countering Hungarian tactics.[5]
Battle of Nish
In the Battle of Nish the crusaders were victorious and forced
Battle of Zlatitsa
Shortly after, bitter cold set in, and the next encounter, fought at
As they marched home, however, they ambushed and defeated a pursuing force in the
While the battle at Zlatitsa Pass had been a defeat, the ambush returned to the crusaders the impression of an overall Christian victory, and they returned triumphant. The King and Church were both anxious to maintain this impression, and gave instructions to spread word of the victories, but contradict anyone who mentioned the loss.[5]
Murad, meanwhile, returned angry and dejected by the unreliability of his forces, and imprisoned Turahan after blaming him for the army's setbacks and Mahmud Bey's capture.[5]
Peace proposals
Murad is believed to have had the greatest wish for peace. Among other things, his vizier's sister begged him to obtain her husband Mahmud's release, and his wife Mara, daughter of Đurađ Branković, added additional pressure. On 6 March 1444 Mara sent an envoy to Branković; their discussion started the peace negotiations with the Ottoman Empire.[5]
On 24 April 1444, Władysław sent a letter to Murad, stating that his ambassador, Stojka Gisdanić, was travelling to Edirne with full powers to negotiate on his behalf. He asked that, once an agreement was reached, Murad send his own ambassadors with the treaty and his sworn oath to Hungary, at which point Władysław could also swear.[5]
That same day, Władysław held a
Between June and August 1444, negotiations for a treaty were carried out, first in Edirne, and then in Szeged. The crusaders were not entirely interested in peace, however, especially with Cesarini pushing for the crusade's continuation. The Cardinal eventually found a solution that would allow for both the continuation of fighting and the ratification of the treaty, and on 15 August 1444 the Peace of Szeged was sworn into effect.[5]
Final stage
Shortly after all the short-term requirements of the treaty were fulfilled, the Hungarians and their allies resumed the crusade. King Władysław gathered an army composed mostly of Hungarian regular troops, and forces from Poland, Transylvania, Croatia, Bosnia, heavy cavalry units from western Europe, and mercenaries from eastern Europe.[10] The combined armies numbered 16,000, and were joined by 4,000 Wallachians in the area of Nicopolis.[11] Murad, who had retired shortly after the treaty was completed, was called back to lead the Ottoman army. On 10 November 1444, the two armies clashed at the Battle of Varna (near the Black Sea fortress of Varna, Bulgaria). The Ottomans won a decisive victory despite heavy losses, while the crusaders lost King Władysław and over 15,000 men.[12][page needed][13][page needed]
Aftermath
Many of the Crusaders were crippled by frostbite, many more died in smaller follow-up battles, and many Europeans were captured. Hungary fell back into civil war until Hunyadi was elected Regent for the infant Ladislaus in June 1446. Branković retained control over Serbia.
The Ottoman victory in Varna, followed by their victory in the
In popular culture
The end of the Crusade of Varna serves as the starting point for the grand strategy video game Europa Universalis IV by Paradox Development Studio, one day after the Battle of Varna, on 11 November 1444.
Footnotes
- ISBN 978-0-7546-0144-9.
- ^ Ganse, Alexander (June 6, 2005). "History of Warfare". World History at KLMA. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
- ISBN 0-395-65237-5. Archived from the originalon 2007-07-05. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
- ^ a b Sugar, Peter (1977). "Chapter 1: The Early History and the Establishment of the Ottomans in Europe". Southeastern Europe Under Ottoman Rule, 1354–1804 (Reprint). University of Washington Press. Archived from the original on 2008-05-09.
- ^ ISBN 0-7546-0144-7.
- ^ a b "Wladislaus III". Classic Encyclopedia (Reprint of Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition ed.). Retrieved 2007-05-19.
- ^ ISBN 0-472-08260-4.
- ^ Jireček 1978, p. 367.
- ^ Setton, Hazard & Zacour 1990, p. 293.
- ^ Pogăciaș 2015, p. 331.
- ^ Setton 1978, pp. 89–90.
- ISBN 963-326-337-9
- ISBN 963-548-961-7
- ISBN 978-0-7425-3823-8.
References
- Jireček, Konstantin (1978). Istorija Srba. Slovo ljubve.
- Pogăciaș, Andrei (2015). "John Hunyadi and the Late Crusade". In Sabaté, Flocel (ed.). Life and Religion in the Middle Ages. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 9781443881654.
- ISBN 0-87169-127-2.
- ISBN 978-0-299-10744-4.