Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor

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Otto II
Portrait of Otto II on the Registrum Gregorii illuminated manuscript, c. 985.
Holy Roman Emperor
Reign7 May 973 – 7 December 983
PredecessorOtto I
SuccessorOtto III
King of Italy
Reign25 December 980 – 7 December 983
PredecessorOtto I
SuccessorOtto III
King of Germany
Reign26 May 961 – 7 December 983
PredecessorOtto I
SuccessorOtto III
Born955
Duchy of Saxony, Kingdom of Germany
Died7 December 983 (aged 27–28)
Rome, Papal States
Burial
St. Peter's Basilica
SpousesTheophanu (m. 972)
Issue
DynastyOttonian
FatherOtto the Great
MotherAdelaide of Italy

Otto II (955 – 7 December 983), called the Red (der Rote), was Holy Roman Emperor from 973 until his death in 983. A member of the Ottonian dynasty, Otto II was the youngest and sole surviving son of Otto the Great and Adelaide of Italy.

Otto II was made joint-ruler of Germany in 961, at an early age, and his father named him co-Emperor in 967 to secure his succession to the throne. His father also arranged for Otto II to marry the Byzantine Princess Theophanu, who would be his wife until his death. When his father died after a 37-year reign, the eighteen-year-old Otto II became absolute ruler of the Holy Roman Empire in a peaceful succession. Otto II spent his reign continuing his father's policy of strengthening Imperial rule in Germany and extending the borders of the Empire deeper into Southern Italy. Otto II also continued the work of Otto I in subordinating the Catholic Church to Imperial control.

Early in his reign, Otto II defeated a

major revolt against his rule from other members of the Ottonian dynasty who claimed the throne for themselves. His victory allowed him to exclude the Bavarian line
of the Ottonians from the line of Imperial succession. This strengthened his authority as Emperor and secured the succession of his own son to the Imperial throne.

With domestic affairs settled, Otto II would focus his attention from 980 onward to annexing the whole of Italy into the Empire. His conquests brought him into conflict with the

major uprising by the Slavs broke out in 983, forcing the Empire to abandon its major territorial holdings east of the Elbe river
.

Otto II died suddenly in 983 at the age of 28 after a ten-year reign. He was succeeded as Emperor by his three-year-old son Otto III, plunging the Empire into a political crisis.

Early years

Birth and youth

Otto II was born in 955, the third son of the

Archbishop William of Mainz, with Otto II's literary and cultural education. Margrave Odo, commander of the Eastern March
, taught the young crown prince the art of war and the kingdom's legal customs.

Needing to put his affairs in order prior to his descent into

regents. After three-and-a-half years in Italy, Otto I returned to Germany early in 965 as Holy Roman Emperor
. In order to give the hope of dynastic continuity after his death, Otto I again confirmed Otto II as his heir on 2 February 965, the third anniversary of Otto I's coronation as Emperor.

Heir apparent

Otto II (left) and Theophano anointed as Emperor and Empress

Though Otto I was crowned Emperor in 962 and returned to Germany in 965, the political situation in Italy remained unstable. After almost two years in Germany, Otto I made a third expedition to Italy in 966. Bruno was again appointed regent over the eleven-year-old Otto II during Otto I's absence.

With his power over northern and central Italy secured, Otto I sought to clarify his relationship with the

Byzantine Emperor objected to Otto's use of the title "Emperor". The situation between East and West was finally resolved to share sovereignty over southern Italy. Otto I sought a marriage alliance between his Imperial house and the Eastern Macedonian dynasty. A prerequisite for the marriage alliance was the coronation of Otto II as Co-Emperor. Otto I then sent word for Otto II to join him in Italy. In October 967, father and son met in Verona and together marched through Ravenna to Rome. On 25 December 967, Otto II was crowned Co-Emperor by Pope John XIII, securing Otto II's succession to the Imperial crown following his father's death.[2]

Otto II's coronation allowed marriage negotiations to begin with the East. Only in 972, six years later, under the new Byzantine Emperor

married to the fourteen-year-old Eastern princess, and Theophanu was crowned empress by the Pope.[3]

Even after his coronation, Otto II remained in the shadow of his overbearing father. Though the nominal co-ruler of the Empire, he was denied any role in its administration. Unlike his earlier son Liudolf, whom Otto I named Duke of Swabia in 950, Otto II was granted no area of responsibility. Otto II was confined primarily to northern Italy during his father's time south of the Alps. After five years away, the Imperial family returned to Saxony in August 972.

On 7 May 973, Otto died of fever, and Otto II succeeded his father as sole Emperor without meeting any opposition.[3] Otto II spent his reign continuing his father's policy of strengthening Imperial rule in Germany and extending it deeper into Italy.

Reign as emperor

Coronation and domestic strife

Holy Roman emperors (12th and 13th centuries); the panels are now set into Gothic windows, Strasbourg Cathedral

When Otto the Great died, the smooth succession to the imperial throne of Otto II had long been guaranteed. Otto II had been king of Germany for twelve years and Emperor for five at the time of Otto the Great's death. Unlike his father, Otto II did not have any brothers to contest his claims to the throne. On May 8, the nobles of the Empire assembled before Otto II and, according to the Saxon Chronicler

Archbishop of Magdeburg
. Although Otto II had succeeded peacefully to the throne, internal divisions of power still remained unaddressed. During his first seven years as Emperor, he was constantly occupied with maintaining Imperial power against internal rivals and external enemies.

The domestic problems Otto the Great faced between 963 and 972 had not been resolved by his death. The Saxon nobility continued to resist the

Bishop of Worms
in 979, was also not from a noble family.

Otto the Great also failed to clarify affairs in Italy prior to his death. Otto died soon after the appointment of

Boniface VII, an antipope, had Benedict murdered while still in prison.[4]

Following his coronation, a rift developed between Otto II and his mother, the

Conrad of Burgundy
.

Conflict with Henry II

Otto II sought continued peace between himself and the descendants of his uncle

Henry as the new Bishop of Augsburg. Augsburg was located on the western side of the Swabian-Bavarian border, the territory of Henry II's brother-in-law Burchard III, Duke of Swabia. Henry's actions in naming a bishop in a duchy not his own and without Imperial direction brought him into conflict with both Otto II and Burchard III. Not desiring civil war, Otto II, on 22 September 973, invested
Henry as bishop.

On 12 November 973, Burchard III died with no heir: his union to Hadwing, sister of Henry II, had produced no children. With no clear successor, Henry II demanded that Otto II name him as the new Duke of Swabia. The Emperor sensed the far-reaching ambitions of his cousin and denied his request. Instead, Otto II named as Duke his nephew Otto, son of his half-brother Liudolf, Duke of Swabia. Prior to his appointment, Otto had been a long-time opponent of Henry II's expanding influence in Swabia. By naming a descendant of his half-brother instead of his cousin, Otto II reinforced his father's policy of appointing close family members to key posts throughout the Empire. This appointment elevated the descendants of Otto the Great above those of Henry I in the selection process, further dividing Otto II and Henry II.

The appointment of Otto as Duke of Swabia was taken by Henry II as an assault on his claim to the Imperial throne and a slight to his honor.

Corvey
.

By 976, Henry II had returned to Bavaria. Whether Otto II released him from prison or he escaped is not known for certain. Upon his return, Henry openly rebelled against Otto II, claiming rulership over the Empire for himself. Henry II mobilized the Saxon nobility against Otto II. In particular, Henry II had strong connections to Margrave

Dietrich I of Wettin, who were all displeased with Otto II's lack of adherence to Saxon tradition. In response to the rebellion, Otto II stripped Henry II of his duchy and had him excommunicated. Otto II then marched his army south to Bavaria and laid siege to Regensburg
, Henry II's stronghold. Otto II's army eventually broke through the city's defenses, forcing Henry II to flee to Bohemia.

The Duchy of Carinthia (orange) was created by Otto II from confiscated territory of the Duchy of Bavaria (purple)

With Henry II deposed, in July 976 Otto II issued far-reaching edicts on the reorganization of the southern German duchies. Otto II reduced the size of Duchy of Bavaria by almost a third. From the excised Bavarian territory, Otto II established the Duchy of Carinthia in southern Germany. By depriving Bavaria of the March of Verona, Otto II considerably reduced the influence of the Bavarian dukes in northern Italy and in general Imperial policy regarding Italy. Otto II gave the newly diminished Duchy of Bavaria to his relative Otto, the Duke of Swabia,[3] and appointed Henry III, son of the former Bavarian Duke Berthold, as Duke of Carinthia. These appointments continued his policy of appointing individuals who had no political links to Otto the Great, including those who had even rebelled against him.

With matters in southern Germany settled, Otto II turned his attention to defeating and capturing Henry II. After a failed first invasion into Bohemia, Otto II marched to Bohemia a second time in August 977. While in Bohemia,

Bishop of Utrecht
where he would remain until Otto II's death in 983.

While Otto the Great had pardoned rebellious family members for their crimes, Otto II followed a different policy. Instead, Otto II hoped to subordinate the Bavarian line of Ottonians to his Imperial authority. Henry II's four-year-old son, also named Henry, was sent to Hildesheim to study for an ecclesiastical career. It appears Otto II intended to end the Bavarian Ottonians' secular control of Bavaria. Under a new Duke, Bavaria would remain a remote area of the Empire. Otto II would only visit the Duchy three times during his reign, in all cases accompanied by the military.

War with Denmark

Main article: German–Danish war of 974

In 950, Otto the Great had subdued the

convert to Christianity. Under the reign of Otto the Great, Denmark fulfilled all its obligations and regularly paid tribute to the Germans. When Harald became king in 958, he expanded the control of his kingdom into Norway, becoming king there in 970. With his newly obtained power, the young ruler was no longer willing to accept German supremacy over his kingdom. In summer 974, Harald rebelled against Otto II.[6] With the support of Norwegian troops, Harald was able to cross the Danish border into Germany, defeating the German forces stationed in the north. Otto II attacked Harald's forces, but the joint Danish-Norwegian army repelled the German army. In autumn, however, when the Norwegian allies sailed north to return to Norway, Otto II was able to counter Harald's advances at the Danevirke
.

War against France

Further information: Franco-German war of 978–980

Before Henry II's civil war in southern Germany erupted, Otto II was faced with disputes in western Germany. The brothers

Egbert
as his Imperial Chancellor.

Otto II's support of Charles, however, infuriated the French king, who claimed the Duchy as his own territory.

King Conrad of Burgundy.[6]
After occupying Aachen for five days, Lothair returned to France after symbolically disgracing the city.

Otto II convened the Imperial Diet in mid-July at

Theodoric I, Bishop of Metz. Lothair then fled to the French capital of Paris and was there besieged by Otto II and Charles. Sickness among his troops brought on by winter and a French relief army under Hugh Capet forced Otto II and Charles to lift the siege on November 30, and to return to Germany. On the journey back to Germany, Otto's rearguard was attacked and destroyed by French forces, with their supplies being captured.[8] Despite neither side obtaining a clear victory, Otto II felt his honor was sufficiently restored and opened peace negotiations with the French King. Peace was finally concluded between Otto II and Lothair in 980: in return for renouncing his claims on Lorraine, Otto II would recognize Lothair's son Louis V as the rightful heir to the French throne.[8]

With peace concluded, Otto II returned to Aachen to celebrate Pentecost, and then moved towards Nijmegen. During the journey, in late June or early July 980, the Empress Theophanu gave birth to the Imperial couple's only son: Otto III.

Reign in Italy

Papal politics

With his rule north of the Alps secured and with the birth of his heir, Otto II shifted his focus to Italy. The situation south of the Alps was chaotic.

excommunicated
for his unsuccessful attempt to take the papacy.

In 979 Benedict VII's position as ruler of Rome was threatened, forcing the Pope to withdraw from and seek the aid of the Emperor. Accepting the Pope's call for aid, Otto II and Theophanu, along with their infant son

Archbishop of Mainz
, to serve as his regent over Germany.

In October 980 the Imperial court arrived in

Conrad of Burgundy and his wife Matilda of France, Duke Hugh Capet of France, Duke Otto of Swabia and Bavaria
, and other high secular and religious officials from Germany, Italy and France.

Otto II proceeded to hold court in Rome, making the city his Imperial capital, where he received princes and nobles from all parts of western Europe.[9]

Venetian affairs

Territory of the Venetian Republic (in red) shortly after Otto II's reign.

The relationship between the Empire and the

John I Tzimisces as Venice controlled all sea trade between Western Europe and the Byzantine Levant
in the East.

Otto I's military protection of Pietro IV ensured his hold over power in Venice despite his autocratic tendencies over the republican city. In 973, however, Otto I died. With Otto II busy suppressing

Saint Mark's Basilica, resulting in the greater part of the city being burnt. The Doge and his son, also named Pietro, were killed in the blaze, but their bodies were later recovered and respectfully buried. Pietro IV's son by the first marriage, Vitale Candiano Patriarch of Grado survived, as well as his namesake Vitale Candiano, presumably the son of Petro, fled to Otto II's court in Saxony with plans to depose the new pro-Byzantine Doge, Pietro I Orseolo
.

Pietro I Orselo's conciliating policy towards the Empire was ineffective. After having ruled Venice for about two years, Pietro I voluntarily abdicated to become a monk, allowing the pro-Ottonian Vitale to return to Venice as Doge in 978, restoring the city's friendly relationship with the Empire. However, Vitale's reign was short (less than two years) and he too abdicated to become a monk. With the position vacant, the pro-Byzantine Tribuno Memmo became the new Doge in 979. With the change in leadership, Otto II was reluctant to renew the city's commercial agreements which his father had previously granted to the city. It was only after the intervention of Otto II's mother, the dowager empress Adelaide of Italy, that the Emperor renewed the agreements.

Violence erupted in Venice during 980 due to tensions between the pro-Ottonian Coloprini family and the pro-Byzantine

trade embargo against the island republic. When the initial embargo showed little effect on Venice, Otto II imposed a second embargo in 983 which dealt considerable damage to the Venetian economy. The effects were disastrous enough to cause the ruling Venetian families to surrender to Otto II, but Otto II's untimely death that year prevented him from capitalizing on his victory. The Chronicle of John the Deacon
claims that the early death is the punishment for persecuting the Venetians, as There is no doubt that, as a monk blessed with the prophetic spirit had revealed to him on the instructions of an angel, he ran into sudden death because he had persecuted the Venetians.

Religious policy

Otto II followed the policy of his father in expanding the importance of the Church in his Empire, in particular the importance of

Imperial abbeys. These measures and the unusual size of the abbey perhaps suggest that Memleben may have been intended as an Imperial Mausoleum for the Ottonians.[14]

Following the suppression of

Cathedral of Magdeburg) during his 37-year reign, Otto II established at least four monasteries: Memleben, Tegernsee, Bergen, and Arneburg
. Monasticism became a key part of Otto II's Imperial policy, entrusting the abbots with key political functions.

Otto II employed monks among his top political advisers, including

bishop of Piacenza
, and would send him to Constantinople to arrange for a marriage between Otto III and a Byzantine princess.

Southern expansion

Otto II, from a south Italian exultet roll, c. 985

In regard to his Italian policy, Otto II went beyond the goals of his father. Not satisfied with the territorial gains made under Otto I, Otto II's policy was based not only on securing his power in Rome and cooperating with the Papacy, but also on gaining absolute dominion over the whole of Italy. Influenced by his wife, who was hostile to the return of the

Muslim Fatimid Caliphate
, which claimed southern Italy as within its sphere of influence.

The Ottonians' chief lieutenant in central and southern Italy had long been the

Otto I as Prince of Benevento and Capua in 961, Pandulf waged war against the Byzantines and expanded Ottonian control to include the Duchy of Spoleto in 967. The following year, under Otto II, Pandulf added the Principality of Salerno to the Empire. His campaigns under Otto I and Otto II incorporated all three of the southern Lombard principalities - Benevento, Capua, and Salerno - into the Holy Roman Empire. As vassal of Otto II, Pandulf ruled a large bloc of territories stretching as far north as Tuscany and as far south as the Gulf of Taranto.[16]

Pandulf's death in 981 deprived Otto II of one of his primary lieutenants. Pandulf's lands were partitioned among his sons, though further quarrels between the local Lombard princes soon followed.[13] Pandulf's older son Landulf IV received Capua and Benevento while his younger son Pandulf II received Salerno. Upon hearing of Pandulf's death, Otto II, ruling from Rome, traveled south to install Thrasimund IV as Duke of Spoleto. Then, Pandulf's nephew Pandulf II was given Benevento when Otto II partitioned Landulf IV's territory, with Landulf IV keeping Capua. Finally, Duke Manso I of Amalfi deposed Pandulf II of Salerno in 982.

By 982 the entire area once ruled by Pandulf had collapsed, weakening Otto II's position against the Byzantines. The Byzantines still claimed sovereignty over the Lombard principalities, and the lack of a single leader to prevent their advances into Lombard territory allowed the Byzantines to make inroads further north. Otto II attempted on several occasions to reunify the Lombard principalities politically and ecclesiastically into his Empire after Pandulf's death. Though he unsuccessfully besieged Manso I in Salerno, Otto II ultimately obtained the recognition of his authority from all the Lombard principalities.

Italy around 1000, shortly after Otto II's death in 983.

With his authority reestablished over the Lombard princes, Otto II turned his attention towards the threat from Muslim Sicily. Since the 960s the island had been under

Muslim rule as the Emirate of Sicily, a state of the Fatimid Caliphate. The ruling Kalbid dynasty had conducted raids against Imperial territories in southern Italy. The death of Pandulf in 981 allowed the Sicilian Emir Abu al-Qasim to increase his raids, hitting targets in Apulia and Calabria. As early as 980 Otto II demanded a fleet from the city of Pisa to help him carry out his war in southern Italy,[17] and in September 981 he marched into southern Italy.[9]
Needing allies in his campaign against the Muslims and the Byzantine Empire, Otto II reconciled with Amalfian Duke Manso I, granting Imperial recognition of his rule over Salerno.

Otto II's troops marched on Byzantine-controlled Apulia in January 982 with the purpose of annexing the territory into his Empire.

Rossano Calabro. Informed of the Muslim retreat, Otto II left his wife Theophanu and young son Otto III
(along with the Imperial treasury) in the city and marched his army to pursue the Muslim force.

Unable to flee back to his stronghold in Sicily due to an Ottonian naval blockade, al-Qasim faced Otto's army in what has been come to be known as the

Abbot of Fulda
, and numerous other Imperial officials were among the battle's casualties.

The Imperial defeat shocked the political makeup of

Benevento passed to younger branches of the Landulfid
family. Though the Muslim troops were forced to retreat to Sicily after their victory, the Muslims remained a presence in southern Italy, harassing the Byzantines and Lombards. This Ottonian defeat, the worst in the history of the Empire at the time, greatly weakened Imperial power in southern Italy. The Byzantines joined forces with the Muslims and regained possession of Apulia from Ottonian forces.

Imperial crisis

Succession issues

The defeat at Stilo forced Otto II to flee north to Rome.[21] He then held an Imperial Diet at Verona on Pentecost 983.[19] He sent his nephew Otto I, Duke of Swabia and Bavaria, back to Germany with news of the defeat and to call the German nobles to the assembly, but his emissary died en route on November 1, 982, in Lucca. News of the battle did cross the Alps, however, reaching as far as Wessex in England, signifying the magnitude of the defeat. Duke Bernard I of Saxony was heading south for the assembly when Danish Viking raids forced him to return to face the threat.

At the assembly, Otto II appointed

two-year revolt against Otto II's rule. The defeat at Stilo cost the Empire many nobles, forcing Otto II to end Henry's banishment in order to stabilize domestic affairs in Germany while he campaigned against the Muslims and Byzantines in southern Italy. Also, the appointment of Conrad I allowed the House of the Conradines to return to power in Swabia for the first time since 948. Otto II and the assembled nobles agreed on a strategy of naval blockade and economic warfare until reinforcements from Germany could arrive. Otto II then prepared for a new campaign against the Muslims[3] and obtained a settlement with the Republic of Venice
, whose assistance he needed following the destruction of his army at Stilo. However, the death of Otto II the next year and the resulting civil war prevented the Empire from appropriately responding to the defeat.

The most important action taken by Otto II at the assembly, however, was to secure

King of Germany and heir apparent to the Imperial throne. Otto III thus became the only German king elected south of the Alps. The exact reason for this unusual procedure has been lost to history. It is possible that the conditions in southern Italy following the defeat required Otto II to act quickly in designating an Imperial heir to ensure the Empire's future. It is also conceivable, however, that holding the election in Italy was a deliberate choice on the part of Otto II in order to demonstrate that Italy was an equal part of the Empire to Germany. His election secured, Otto III and his mother, the Empress Theophanu, traveled north across the Alps heading for Aachen
, the traditional coronation site for the Ottonians, in order for Otto III to be officially crowned as king. Otto II stayed in Italy to further address his military campaigns.

Great Slav uprising

Main article:
Great Slav Rising
The Northern March (outlined in red) between the Billung March in the north and the Saxon Eastern March (March of Lusatia) in the south. Both the Billung March and the North March were lost following the Great Slav Rising.

Around the year 982, Imperial authority in Slavic territory extended as far east as the

Elbe River, the Luticians initiated a revolt aimed at the abolition of feudal rule and Christianity,[22] drawing upon considerable support by the Obodrite populace and their leader Mstivoj.[24] In part, the Obodrite revolt was successful: The princely family, though in part remaining Christian, dissolved Christian institutions.[24]

Soldiers from the

Bishop of Halberstadt and the Archbishop of Magdeburg, joined forces to defeat the Slavs near Stendal.[25] Nevertheless, the Empire was forced to withdraw to the western banks of the Elbe river. The successes of the Empire's Christianization policy towards the Slavs were nullified, and political control over the Billung March and the Northern March (territories east of the Elbe) was lost. In the decade since his death, Otto I's life work of converting the Slavs was undone. The Slavic territories east of the Elbe would remain pagan for over a century before further missionary work resumed: it would not be until the 12th century that the churches of Havelberg and Brandenburg
would be reestablished.

The Danes took advantage of the Slavic revolt and invaded the March of Schleswig along the Empire's northern border while the Sorb Slavs invaded and conquered the March of Zeitz from the Saxons.[19]

Sudden death and political turmoil

In July 983,

Bishop of Pavia Pietro Canepanova (who reigned as Pope John XIV) in November or early December.[26] While Otto II was in Rome, a malaria outbreak in central Italy prevented the resumption of military activity in southern Italy. The outbreak ultimately led to the death of the Emperor himself in his palace at Rome on December 7, 983, at the age of 28, after having reigned for just over a decade.[3] Otto II's money and possessions were divided among the Catholic Church, the poor of the Empire, his mother Adelaide and sister Matilda, and those nobles loyal to him. Otto II was then buried in the atrium of St. Peter's Basilica,[9] the only Holy Roman Emperor to be buried in St Peter's.[27]

Otto II's three-year-old son

Archbishop of Ravenna.[28] News of Otto II's death first reached Germany after Otto III's coronation.[28] The unresolved problems in southern Italy and the Slavic uprising on the Empire's eastern border made the Empire's political situation extremely unstable. The arrival of a minor on the Imperial throne threw the Empire into confusion, allowing Otto III's mother, the Byzantine Princess Theophanu, to reign as his regent.[29]

In 976, Otto II had deposed

Bavaria, and Swabia.[29] The threat of war from Willigis and Conrad I, Duke of Swabia forced Henry II to relinquish Otto III on June 29, 984 and to respect the regency of Theophanu.[30]

The early death of Otto II and the ensuing events proved to be a serious test for the Empire. Despite having a child under the regency of his mother as a ruler, the structure established by

Emperor Otto the Great
remained strong as most of the Empire's most powerful officials stayed loyal to the Imperial system.

Character

German royal dynasties
Family tree of the German monarchs
Category:Ottonian dynasty
Succession
Preceded by Conradine dynasty
Followed by Salian dynasty

Otto was a man of small stature, by nature brave and impulsive, and by training an accomplished knight. He was generous to the church and aided the spread of Christianity in many ways.

Conrad the Red
, who died the year he was born and from whom he is also likely to have inherited some property.

Family and children

Main article: Ottonian dynasty

Otto II was a member of the

Otto I, father of Otto III, and a first-cousin once removed to Henry II
.

Otto II had only one known wife. On 14 April 972, Otto II married Theophanu,[31] a Byzantine princess of the Phokas family who was the cousin of reigning Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimiskes. The two had at least five children:

Ancestry

See also

  • Kings of Germany family tree
    .

References

  1. ISBN 978-1783270248
    .
  2. ^ Duckett, p. 90
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Reuter 2000, p. 254.
  4. ^ a b Richard P. McBrien, Lives of the Popes: The Pontiffs from St. Peter to Benedict XVI, (HarperCollins, 2000), 161.
  5. ^ Duckett, p. 100
  6. ^ a b c Comyn, p. 117
  7. ^ G. Labuda, Mieszko I, pp. 180–185; Marian Jedlicki, Stosunek prawny Polski, Poznań, 1939, p. 33
  8. ^ a b c Comyn, p. 118
  9. ^ a b c d e  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Otto II.". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 374.
  10. ^ a b c Comyn, p. 119
  11. ^ a b Duckett, p. 103
  12. ^ a b Duckett, p. 102
  13. ^ a b Sismondi, p. 29
  14. ^ John W. Bernhardt, in Gerd Althoff, Johannes Fried, Patrick J. Geary, eds. Medieval Concepts of the Past: ritual, memory, historiography, 2002:59f.
  15. ^ Arnulf of Milan, Liber gestorum recentium, I.11–12.
  16. ^ Wickham, Chris. Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society 400–1000. MacMillan Press: 1981, p. 156, "from Ancona to the fringes of Calabria"
  17. ^ Sismondi, p. 91
  18. ^ Comyn, p. 120
  19. ^ a b c Duckett, p. 104
  20. ^ Sismondi, p. 30
  21. ^ Sismondi, p. 30
  22. ^ a b Lübke (2002), p. 99
  23. ^ Hengst (2005), p. 501
  24. ^ a b Lübke (2002), p. 97
  25. ^ Thompson, p. 490.
  26. ^ Duckett, p. 105
  27. ^ Norwich p. 253
  28. ^ a b Duckett, p. 106
  29. ^ a b c Comyn, p. 121
  30. ^ a b c Duckett, p. 107
  31. ^ a b c d e McKitterick 1999, pp. 366–367.

Bibliography

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor.
Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor
Born: 955 Died: December 7, 983
Regnal titles
Preceded by Holy Roman Emperor
967–983
with Otto I (967–973) 		Succeeded by
King of Italy
980–983
King of Germany
961–983
with Otto I (961–973)
Otto III
(983)
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