Sorbs
Related ethnic groups | |
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Other West Slavs (especially Czechs and Poles) |
Sorbs (
In the
Etymology
The ethnonym "Sorbs" (Serbja, Serby) derives from the medieval ethnic groups called "Sorbs" (Surbi, Sorabi). The original ethnonym, Srbi, was retained by the Sorbs and Serbs in the Balkans.[7] By the 6th century, Slavs occupied the area west of the Oder formerly inhabited by Germanic peoples.[7] The Sorbs are first mentioned in the 6th or 7th century. In their languages, the other Slavs call them the "Lusatian Serbs", and the Sorbs call the Serbs "the south Sorbs".[8] The name "Lusatia" was originally applied only to Lower Lusatia.[7] It is generally considered that their ethnonym *Sŕbъ (plur. *Sŕby) originates from Proto-Slavic with an appellative meaning of a "family kinship" and "alliance", however others argue a derivation from Iranian-Sarmatian.[9][10][11][12]
History
Early Middle Ages
The name of the Sorbs can be traced to the 6th century or earlier when
The Saale-Elbe line marked the approximate limit of Slavic westward migration.[21] Under the leadership of dux (duke) Dervan ("Dervanus dux gente Surbiorum que ex genere Sclavinorum"), they joined the Slavic tribal union of Samo, after Samo's decisive victory against Frankish King Dagobert I in 631.[19][20] Afterwards, these Slavic tribes continuously raided Thuringia.[19] The fate of the tribes after Samo's death and dissolution of the union in 658 is undetermined, but it is considered that they subsequently returned to Frankish vassalage.[22]
According to a 10th-century source De Administrando Imperio, they lived "since the beginning" in the region called by them as Boiki which was a neighbor to Francia, and when two brothers succeeded their father, one of them migrated with half of the people to the Balkans during the rule of Heraclius in the first half of the 7th century.[23][24] According to some scholars, the White Serbian Unknown Archon who led them to the Balkans was most likely a son, brother or other relative of Dervan.[25][26][27][28]
Sorbian tribes, Sorbi/Surbi, are noted in the mid-9th-century work of the Bavarian Geographer.[9][29][30] Having settled by the Elbe, Saale, Spree, and Neisse in the 6th and early 7th century, Sorbian tribes divided into two main groups, which have taken their names from the characteristics of the area where they had settled. The two groups were separated from each other by a wide and uninhabited forest range, one around Upper Spree and the rest between the Elbe and Saale.[31] Some scholars consider that the contemporary Sorbs are descendants of the two largest Sorbian tribes, the Milceni (Upper) and Lusici [de] (Lower), and these tribes' respective dialects have developed into separate languages.[7][32] However, others emphasize differences between these two dialects and that their respective territories correspond to two different Slavic archeological cultures of Tornow group ceramics (Lower Sorbian language) and Leipzig group ceramics (Upper Sorbian language),[31] both a derivation of Prague(-Korchak) culture.[33][34]
The Annales Regni Francorum state that in 806 Sorbian Duke
of the Saxon Eastern March, reconquered Lusatia the following year and, in 939, murdered 30 Sorbian princes during a feast. As a result, there were many Sorbian uprisings against German rule. A reconstructed castle, at Raddusch in Lower Lusatia, is the sole physical remnant from this early period.High and Late Middle Ages
In 1002, the Sorbs came under the rule of their Slavic relatives, the Poles, when
The Kingdom of Bohemia eventually became a politically influential member of the Holy Roman Empire but was in a constant power-struggle with neighbouring Poland. In the following centuries, at various times, parts of Lusatia passed to Piast-ruled fragmented Poland. In the German-ruled parts, Sorbs were ousted from guilds, the Sorbian language was banned and German colonisation and Germanisation policies were enacted.[35]
From the 11th to the 15th century, agriculture in Lusatia developed and colonization by Frankish, Flemish and Saxon settlers intensified. This can still be seen today from the names of local villages which geographically form a patchwork of typical German (ending on -dorf, -thal etc.) and typical Slavic origin (ending on -witz, -ow etc.), indicating the language originally spoken by its inhabitants, although some of the present German names may be of later origin from the time of planned name changes to erase Slavic origin, especially in the 1920s and 1930s. In 1327 the first prohibitions on using Sorbian before courts and in administrative affairs in the cities of Altenburg, Zwickau and Leipzig appeared. Speaking Sorbian in family and business contexts was, however, not banned, as it did not involve the functioning of the administration. Also the village communities and the village administration usually kept operating in Sorbian.
Early modern period
From 1376 to 1469 and from 1490 to 1635 Lusatia was part of the
During the
In 1667 the Prince of
Late modern period
The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, divided Lusatia between Prussia and Saxony. More and more bans on the use of Sorbian languages appeared from then until 1835 in Prussia and Saxony; emigration of the Sorbs, mainly to the town of Serbin in Texas and to Australia, increased. In 1848, 5000 Sorbs signed a petition to the Saxon Government, in which they demanded equality for the Sorbian language with the German one in churches, courts, schools and Government departments. From 1871 the whole of Lusatia became a part of united Germany and was divided between two parts; Prussia (Silesia and Brandenburg), and Saxony.
In 1871 the industrialization of the region and German immigration began; official Germanization intensified. Persecution of the Sorbs under German rule became increasingly harsh throughout the 19th century. Slavs were labeled inferior to Germanic peoples, and in 1875, the use of Sorbian was banned in German schools. As a result, almost the entire Sorbian population was bilingual by the end of the 19th century.[a]
During World War I, one of the most venerated Serbian generals was Pavle Jurišić Šturm (Paul Sturm), a Sorb from Görlitz, Province of Silesia.[citation needed]
Interbellum and World War II
Although the Weimar Republic guaranteed constitutional minority rights, it did not practice them.[39]
Under Nazi Germany, Sorbians were described as a German tribe who spoke a Slavic language. Sorbian costume, culture, customs, and the language was said to be no indication of a non-German origin. The Reich declared that there were truly no "Sorbs" or "Lusatians", only Wendish-speaking Germans. As such, while the Sorbs were largely safe from the Reich's policies of ethnic cleansing, the cultivation of "Wendish" customs and traditions was to be encouraged in a controlled manner and it was expected that the Slavic language would decline due to natural causes. Young Sorbs enlisted in the Wehrmacht and were sent to the front. The entangled lives of the Sorbs during World War II are exemplified by the life stories of Mina Witkojc, Měrćin Nowak-Njechorński and Jan Skala.
Persecution of the Sorbs reached its climax under the Nazis, who attempted to completely assimilate and
Towards the end of World War II, the Nazis considered the deportation of the entire Sorbian population to the mining districts of
East Germany
The first Lusatian cities were captured in April 1945, when the
The relationship between the Sorbs and the government of East Germany was not without occasional difficulties, mainly because of the high levels of religious observance and resistance to the nationalisation of agriculture. During the compulsory collectivization campaign, a great many unprecedented incidents were reported. Thus, throughout the
Sorbs experienced greater representation in the German Democratic Republic than under any other German government. Domowina had status as a constituent member organization of the National Front, and a number of Sorbs were members of the Volkskammer and State Council of East Germany. Notable Sorbian figures of the period include Domowina Chairmen Jurij Grós and Kurt Krjeńc, State Council member Maria Schneider, and writer and three-time recipient of the National Prize of the German Democratic Republic Jurij Brězan.[48]
In 1973, Domowina reported that 2,130 municipal councillors, 119 burgomasters, and more than 3,500 members of commissions and local bodies in East Germany were ethnic Sorbs registered with the organization.[49] Additionally, there was a seat reserved for a Sorbian representative in the Central Council of the Free German Youth, the mass organization for young people in East Germany, and magazines for both the FDJ and the Ernst Thälmann Pioneer Organisation were published in the Sorbian language on a regular basis under the titles Chorhoj Měra and Plomjo, respectively.[50] As of 1989, there were nine schools with exclusively Sorbian language instruction, eighty-five schools that offered Sorbian-language instruction, ten Sorbian-language periodicals, and one daily newspaper.[51]
After reunification
After the reunification of Germany on 3 October 1990, Lusatians made efforts to create an autonomous administrative unit; however, Helmut Kohl’s government did not agree to it.[citation needed] After 1989, the Sorbian movement revived, however, it still encounters many obstacles. Although Germany supports national minorities, Sorbs claim that their aspirations are not sufficiently fulfilled.[citation needed] The desire to unite Lusatia in one of the federal states has not been taken into consideration. Upper Lusatia still belongs to Saxony and Lower Lusatia to Brandenburg. Liquidations of Sorbian schools, even in areas mostly populated by Sorbs, still happen, under the pretext of financial difficulties or demolition of whole villages to create lignite quarries.[citation needed]
Faced with growing threat of cultural extinction, the Domowina issued a memorandum in March 2008[52] and called for "help and protection against the growing threat of their cultural extinction, since an ongoing conflict between the German government, Saxony and Brandenburg about the financial distribution of help blocks the financing of almost all Sorbian institutions". The memorandum also demands a reorganisation of competence by ceding responsibility from the Länder to the federal government and an expanded legal status. The call has been issued to all governments and heads of state of the European Union.[53]
Population genetics
According to 2013 and 2015 studies, the most common
A 2011 paper on the Sorbs' autosomal DNA reported that the Upper Sorbian speakers (n=289) showed the greatest autosomal genetic similarity to Poles, followed by Czechs and Slovaks, consistent with the linguistic proximity of Sorbian to other West Slavic languages.[61] In another genome-wide paper from the same year on Upper Sorbs (n=977), which indicated their genetic isolation "which cannot be explained by over-sampling of relatives" and a closer proximity to Poles and Czechs than Germans. The researchers however question this proximity, as the German reference population was almost exclusively West-German, and the Polish and Czech reference population had many that were part of a German minority.[62] In a 2016 paper, Sorbs cluster autosomally again with Poles (from Poznań).[63]
Language and culture
The oldest known relic of Sorbian literature originated in about 1530 – the
Other Sorbian Bible translators include Jakub Buk (1825–1895), Michał Hórnik (Michael Hornig) (1833–1894), Jurij Łušćanski (a.k.a. Georg Wuschanski) (1839–1905). In 1809 for the short period of time, there was the first printed Sorbian newspaper. In 1767 Jurij Mjeń publishes the first secular Sorbian book. Between 1841 and 1843, Jan Arnošt Smoler and Leopold Haupt (a.k.a. J. L. Haupt and J. E. Schmaler) published two-volume collection of Wendish folk-songs in Upper and Lower Lusatia. From 1842, the first Sorbian publishing companies started to appear: the poet Handrij Zejler set up a weekly magazine, the precursor of today’s Sorbian News. In 1845 in Bautzen the first festival of Sorbian songs took place. In 1875, Jakub Bart-Ćišinski, the poet and classicist of Upper Sorbian literature, and Karol Arnošt Muka created a movement of young Sorbians influencing Lusatian art, science and literature for the following 50 years. A similar movement in Lower Lusatia was organized around the most prominent Lower Lusatian poets Mato Kósyk (Mato Kosyk) and Bogumił Šwjela.
In 1904, mainly thanks to the Sorbs’ contribution, the most important Sorbian cultural centre (the
On May 10, 1945, in
The following statistics indicate the progression of cultural change among Sorbs: by the end of the 19th century, about 150,000 people spoke Sorbian languages. By 1920, almost all Sorbs had mastered Sorbian and German to the same degree. Nowadays, the number of people using Sorbian languages has been estimated to be no more than 40,000.
The Israeli Slavic linguist Paul Wexler has argued that the Yiddish language structure provides "compelling evidence of an intimate Jewish contact with the Slavs in the German and Bohemian lands as early as the 9th century", and has theorized that Sorbs may have been contributors to the Ashkenazic Jewish population in Europe from the same period.[66][67]
Traditions
A Shrove Tuesday festival Zapust is the most popular tradition of the Sorbs, deeply linked to the working life of the community. Traditionally, festivities would last one week ahead of the spring sowing of the fields and would feature traditional dress, parade and dancing.[68]
Religion
Most current speakers of Upper-Sorbian are part of the Catholic denomination. Originally, the majority of Sorbs were Lutheran Protestants, and this was still the case going into the 20th Century (with a Protestant population of 86.9% recorded in 1900).[70] Only the Sorbs of the Kamenz area – predominantly settled on the expansive former site of the Saint Marienstern Monastery [de] in Panschwitz-Kuckau – veered from the norm, with a Catholic population of 88.4%. Otherwise, the proportion of Catholics remained under 1% throughout the region of Lower Lusatia. Due to the rapid decline in language and cultural identity amongst the Protestant Sorbs – particularly during the years of the GDR – the denominational make-up of the Sorbian-speaking population of the region has now been reversed.
National symbols
The flag of the Lusatian Sorbs is a cloth of blue, red and white horizontal stripes. First used as a national symbol in 1842, the flag was fully recognized among Sorbs following the proclamation of pan-Slavic colors at the Prague Slavic Congress of 1848. Section 25 of the Constitution of Brandenburg contains a provision on the Lusatian flag. Section 2 of the Constitution of Saxony contains a provision on the use of the coat of arms and traditional national colors of the Lusatian Sorbs. The laws on the rights of the Lusatian Sorbs of Brandenburg and Saxony contain provisions on the use of Lusatian national symbols (coat of arms and national colors).[71]
The national anthem of Lusatian Sorbs since the 20th century is the song Rjana Łužica (Beautiful Lusatia).[72] Previously, the songs “Still Sorbs Have Not Perished” (written by Handrij Zejler in 1840)[73] and “Our Sorbs Rise from the Dust” (written by M. Domashka, performed until 1945)[74] served as a hymn.
Regions of Lusatia
There are three main regions of Lusatia that differ in language, religion, and customs.
Region of Upper Lusatia
On Sundays, during holidays, and at weddings, people wear regional costumes, rich in decoration and embroidery, encrusted with pearls.
Some of the customs and traditions observed include Bird Wedding (25 January), Easter Cavalcade of Riders, Witch Burning (30 April), Maik, singing on St. Martin's Day (Nicolay), and the celebrations of Saint Barbara’s Day and Saint Nicholas’s Day.
Region of Hoyerswerda (Wojerecy) and Schleife (Slepo)
In the area from Hoyerswerda to Schleife, a dialect of Sorbian which combines characteristic features of both Upper and Lower Sorbian is spoken. The region is predominantly Protestant, highly devastated by the brown coal mining industry, sparsely populated, and to a great extent germanicized. Most speakers of Sorbian are over 60 years old.
The region distinguishes itself through many examples of Slavic wooden architecture monuments including churches and regular houses, a diversity of regional costumes (mainly worn by elderly women) that feature white-knitting with black, cross-like embroidery, and a tradition of playing bagpipes. In several villages, residents uphold traditional festivities such as expelling of winter, Maik,
Region of Lower Lusatia
There are 60 towns from the area of
Worn mainly by older but on holidays by young women, regional costumes are colourful, including a large headscarf called "lapa", rich in golden embroidering and differing from village to village.
In some villages, following traditions are observed: Shrovetide, Maik,
Relationship with Poland
Bolesław I the Brave had taken control of the marches of Lusatia (Łużyce), Sorbian Meissen (Miśnia), and the cities of Budziszyn (Bautzen) and Miśnia in 1002, and refused to pay the tribute to the Empire from the conquered territories. The Sorbs sided with the Poles, and opened the town gates and allowed Bolesław I into Miśnia in 1002.[75] Bolesław, after the Polish-German War (1002–1018), signed the Peace of Bautzen on 30 January 1018, which made him a clear winner. The Polish ruler was able to keep the contested marches of Lusatia and Milsko not as fiefs, but as part of Polish territory.[76][77] The Polish prince Mieszko destroyed about 100 Sorbian villages in 1030 and expelled Sorbians from urban areas, with the exception of fishermen and carpenters who were allowed to live in the outskirts.[78] In the following centuries, at various times, parts of Lusatia formed part of Piast-ruled fragmented Poland.
The 18th century saw increased Polish-Sorbian contacts during the reign of Kings
The first translation from Sorbian into another language was a translation of the poem Wottendzenje wot Liepska teho derje dostoineho wulze wuczeneho Knesa Jana Friedricha Mitschka by Handrij Ruška [hsb] into Polish, made by Stanisław Nałęcz Moszczyński, a Polish lecturer at the University of Leipzig, and published by the famous Polish traveler Jan Potocki.[83]
A distinct remnant of the region's ties to Poland are the 18th-century
Polish-Sorbian contacts continued in the 19th century. In the 1840s,
In the early 20th century, Polish slavist and professor Henryk Ułaszyn [pl] met several prominent Sorbs, including Jan Skala, Jakub Bart-Ćišinski and Arnošt Muka.[89]
After World War I and the restoration of independent Poland, Polish linguist Jan Baudouin de Courtenay supported the Sorbs' right to self-determination and demanded that the League of Nations assume protection over them.[90] In the interbellum, the Poles and Sorbs in Germany closely cooperated as part of the Association of National Minorities in Germany, established at the initiative of the Union of Poles in Germany in 1924. Sorbian journalist, poet and activist Jan Skala was a member of the press headquarters of the Union of Poles in Germany, and was one of the authors of the Leksykon Polactwa w Niemczech ("Lexicon of Poles in Germany").[91] There were also notable Polish communities in Lusatia, such as Klettwitz (Upper Sorbian: Klěśišća, Polish: Kletwice).[88]
In Poland, Antoni Ludwiczak, founder of the folk high school in Dalki, Gniezno, offered Sorbs five tuition-free spots for each course at the school, however, after the Nazi Party came to power in Germany in 1933, enrollment of Sorbs in the school was almost completely halted.[92] Several Sorbs studied in Poland in the interbellum.[93] In 1930, the Association of Friends of the Sorbs was established in Poznań with Henryk Ułaszyn as its president.[94] A similar association, the Polish Association of Friends of the Sorbian Nation (Polskie Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Narodu Łużyckiego), was established at the University of Warsaw in 1936. It gathered people not only from the university. Its president was Professor Stanisław Słoński, and the deputy president was Julia Wieleżyńska. The association was a legal entity. The association in Warsaw issued the Polish-language Biuletyn Serbo-Łużycki ("Sorbian Newsletter"), which reported on Serbian affairs.
During World War II, the Poles postulated that after the defeat of Germany, the Sorbs should be allowed free national development either within the borders of Poland or Czechoslovakia, or as an independent Sorbian state in alliance with Poland.[95] On 22 January 1945, Jan Skala was murdered by a Soviet soldier in Dziedzice, and his grave at the local cemetery is now a Polish protected cultural heritage monument.[96] There is also a memorial to Skala in nearby Namysłów. In 1945, Polish troops fought against German forces in several battles in Lusatia, including the largest Battle of Bautzen. There are memorials to Polish soldiers in Bautzen (Budyšin), Crostwitz (Chrósćicy) and Königswartha (Rakecy) with inscriptions in Sorbian, Polish and German.
Prołuż founded in Krotoszyn, expanded to all Poland (3000 members). It was the biggest non-communist organization that dealt with foreign affairs. This youth organization was created during the Soviet occupation and its motto was "Polish guard over Lusatia" (Polish: Nad Łużycami polska straż). Its highest activity was in the region of Greater Poland. After the creation of East Germany, Prołuż was dissolved, and its president historian from Poznań Alojzy Stanisław Matyniak was arrested.[97]
After 1945, the Sorbs that historically lived in the eastern part of Lusatia (now again part of Poland) were expelled, as they were German citizens. Eastern Lusatia was resettled by Poles expelled from former eastern Poland annexed by the Soviet Union and has by now lost its Sorbian identity.[98]
In 1946, the establishment of a gymnasium for Sorbs in Zgorzelec, Poland, was initiated, and the registration of Sorbian students at Polish universities resumed.[99] Despite the readiness to accept Sorbian youth in 1946, the gymnasium was not opened as the Sorbs had not yet obtained border passes to Poland.[100] The launch of the gymnasium was postponed by a year and free boarding and scholarships were prepared for the Sorbs, but in view of the continued lack of border passes to Poland and the establishment of a Sorbian gymnasium in Bautzen, the idea was abandoned.[101]
After a proposal to rebuild a pre-war statue of Otto von Bismarck in Bautzen (Budyšin) appeared in 2021, the Sorbs objected and the Serbski Institut, in an open letter, reasoned the objection with the Bismarck government's repressions of the Sorbs, Poles, as well as Danes and French, and Bismarck's calls for the extermination of Poles.[102]
Relationship with Czechia
Lusatia was partly or wholly part of the Czech Duchy or Kingdom (also known as Bohemia in the west) at various times between 1075 and 1635, and several remnants of Czech rule can be found in the region. When Lusatia returned from German to Bohemian (Czech) rule, Sorbs were allowed to return to cities, offices and crafts, and the Sorbian language could be used in public.[36] As result, it was in the lands under Czech rule that the Sorbian culture and language persisted, while the more western original Sorbian territory succumbed to Germanization policies. One of the remnants of Czech rule in the region are the many town coats of arms that include the Czech Lion, as in Drebkau (Drjowk), Görlitz (Zhorjelc), Guben (Gubin), Kamenz (Kamjenc), Löbau (Lubij) and Spremberg (Grodk).
In 1706 the Catholic Sorbian Seminary was founded in Prague.[37] In 1846, the Serbowka [hsb] organization was founded by Sorbian students in Prague, and it issued the Kwětki [hsb] magazine until 1892.
Calls for the incorporation of Lusatia into Czechoslovakia were made after Germany's defeats in both world wars. In 1945, the Czechs established a gymnasium for the Sorbs in Česká Lípa, then relocated to Varnsdorf in 1946 and to Liberec in 1949, however, the Sorbs took their high school diploma in Bautzen after a Sorbian high school was established there.[103]
Demography
Estimates of demographic history of the Sorb population since 1450:[1][104][105][106]
Year | 1450 | 1700 | 1750 | 1790 | 1858 | 1861 | 1880 | 1900 | 1905 | 1945 | 2006 | 2020 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population | 160,000 | 250,000 | 200,000 | 250,000 | 164,000 | 165,000 | 166,000 | 146,000 | 157,000 | 145,700 | 40,000-50,000 | 40,000 |
Sorbian population in the middle of the 19th century:
Region | County | Census year | Total population | Sorbian population | % of Sorbs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Regierungsbezirk Frankfurt | Cottbus | 1846 | 49248 | 33522 | 68.1% |
Regierungsbezirk Frankfurt | Spremberg | 1843 | 14092 | 9183 | 65.2% |
Regierungsbezirk Frankfurt | Lübben | 1858 | 31566 | 12427 | 39.4% |
Regierungsbezirk Frankfurt | Calau | 1849 | 43363 | 12143 | 28.0% |
Regierungsbezirk Frankfurt | Sorau | 1858 | 71826 | 10116 | 14.1% |
Regierungsbezirk Liegnitz | Hoyerswerda | 1855 | 30068 | 17223 | 57.3% |
Regierungsbezirk Liegnitz | Rothenburg | 1843 | 42891 | 14267 | 33.3% |
Saxony | Königswartha | 1861 | 7407 | 6385 | 86.2% |
Saxony | Weißenberg | 1861 | 6579 | 4777 | 72.6% |
Saxony | Bautzen | 1861 | 37096 | 23148 | 62.4% |
Saxony | Kamenz | 1861 | 23564 | 7847 | 33.3% |
Saxony | Löbau | 1861 | 27260 | 4089 | 15.0% |
Saxony | Schirgiswalde | 1861 | 16636 | 2196 | 13.2% |
Saxony | Bischofswerda | 1861 | 21051 | 1642 | 7.8% |
Sorbs are divided into two ethnographical groups:
- Upper Sorbs (about 40,000 people).[108]
- Lower Sorbs, who speak
The dialects spoken vary in intelligibility in different areas.
-
Map of approximate Sorb-inhabited area in Germany
-
Map of area and towns inhabited by Sorbs
-
Detailed map of Sorb-inhabited area in Germany (in Lower Sorbian)
Diaspora
During the 1840s, many Sorbian émigrés travelled to Australia, along with many ethnic Germans. The first was Jan Rychtar, a Wendish
Many Wends also migrated from Lusatia to the United States, especially Texas.[111]
See also
- List of Sorbs
- Lusatia
- Polabian Slavs
- Serbs
- Wends
- Milceni
- Pavle Jurišić Šturm
- Wendish People's Party
- Wends of Texas
- List of ancient Slavic peoples and tribes
Notes
- ^ a b "[A]nti-Sorbian policies throughout the Sorbian area of settlement got increasingly aggressive and, unsurprisingly, saw their climax under Nazi rule. Sorbs were declared to be "Wendish-speaking Germans" and a "Wendenabteilung was established to monitor the process of assimilation..."[38]
- ^ a b "Sorbs inhabiting Upper and Lower Lusatia, whose distinct identity and culture were simply denied by the Nazis, who described them as “Wendish-speaking” Germans and who, toward the end of the war, considered moving the Sorbs en masse to the mining districts of Alsace-Lorraine.".[41]
- ^ "The Nazis intended to assimilate and permanently germanize these 'Wendish-speaking Germans' through integration into the 'National Socialist national community' and through the forbidding of the Sorbian language and manifestations of Sorbian culture, Sorbian and Slav place-names and local names of topographical features (fields, hills and so forth) were germanized, Sorbian books and printing presses confiscated and destroyed, Sorbian schoolteachers and clerics removed and put in German-speaking schools and parishes, and representatives of Sorbian cultural life were either forcibly isolated from their fellows or arrested."[42]
- ^ a b "[A]fter 1933, under the Nazi regime, the Sorbian community suffered severe repression, and their organizations were banned. Indeed, the very existence of the ethnic group was denied and replaced by the theory of the Sorbs as 'Slavic speaking Germans'. Plans were made to re-settle the Sorbian population in Alsace in order to resolve the 'Lusatian question'. The 12 years of Nazi dictatorship was a heavy blow for a separate Sorbian identity."[43]
- ^ "They pressed Sorbian associations to join Nazi organizations, often with Success, and the Domowina received an ultimatum to adopt a statute which defined it as a 'League of Wendish-speaking Germans'.” But the Domowina insisted upon the Slavonic character of the Sorbs. In March 1937 the Nazis forbade the Domowina and the Sorbian papers, all teaching in Sorbian was discontinued, and Sorbian books were removed from the school libraries."[44]
- ^ "[T]he programmatic re-invention of the Sorbian minority as wen- dischsprechende Deutsche under the Nazi regime..."[45]
References
- ^ a b c Gebel, K. (2002). Language and ethnic national identity in Europe: the importance of Gaelic and Sorbian to the maintenance of associated cultures and ethno cultural identities (PDF). London: Middlesex University.
- ^ a b Chambers, Madeline (26 November 2007). "Germany's Sorb minority struggles for survival". Reuters. Retrieved 18 August 2022.
- ^ "Společnost přátel Lužice". luzice.cz. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ census.gov. United States Census Bureau https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial/2000/phc/phc-t-43/tab01.pdf. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
{{cite web}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help) - ^ Sparrow, Thomas (16 June 2021). "Sorbs: The ethnic minority inside Germany". BBC. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
- ^ Oldřich Tůma, Jaroslav Pánek (2018). History of the Czech Lands. p. 237.
- ^ a b c d Stone 2015, p. 9.
- ^ Deutsche Welle. "Lužički Srbi - njemački Slaveni protestantske vjere" (in Croatian). Retrieved 6 December 2014.
- ^ . Retrieved 4 August 2020.
- ^ Rudnicki, Mikołaj (1959). Prasłowiańszczyzna, Lechia-Polska (in Polish). Państwowe wydawn. naukowe, Oddzia ︢w Poznaniu. p. 182.
- S2CID 183316961.
Srbin, Plural Srbi: „Serbe", wird zum urslawischen *sirbŭ „Genosse" gestellt und ist somit slawischen Ursprungs41. Hrvat „Kroate", ist iranischer Herkunft, über urslawisches *chŭrvatŭ aus altiranischem *(fšu-)haurvatā, „Viehhüter"42.
- hdl:11089/16320. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
- ^ a b Simek, Emanuel (1955). Chebsko V Staré Dobe: Dnesní Nejzápadnejsi Slovanské Území (in Czech). Vydává Masarykova Universita v Brne. pp. 47, 269.
O Srbech máme zachován první historický záznam ze VI. století u Vibia Sequestra, který praví, že Labe dělí v GermaniinSrby od Suevů65. Tím ovšem nemusí být řečeno, že v končinách severně od českých hor nemohli býti Srbové již i za Labem (západně od Labe), neboť nevíme, koho Vibius Sequester svými Suevy mínil. Ať již tomu bylo jakkoli, víme bezpečně ze zpráv kroniky Fredegarovy, že Srbové měli celou oblast mezi Labem a Sálou osídlenu již delší dobu před založením říše Samovy66, tedy nejméně již v druhé polovici VI. století67. Jejich kníže Drevan se osvobodil od nadvlády francké a připojil se někdy kolem roku 630 se svou državou k říši Samově68. V následujících letech podnikali Srbové opětovně vpády přes Sálu do Durinska 69... 67 Schwarz, ON 48, dospěl k závěru, že se země mezi Labem a Sálou stala srbskou asi r. 595 a kolem roku 600 že bylo slovanské stěhování do končin západně od Labe určitě již skončeno; R. Fischer, GSl V. 58, Heimatbildung XVIII. 298, ON Falk. 59, NK 69 datuje příchod Slovanů na Chebsko do druhé polovice VI. století, G. Fischer(ová), Flurnamen 218, do VI. století. Chebský historik Sieg1 dospěl v posledním svém souhrnném díle o dějinách Chebska Eger u. Egerland 4 k závěru, že Slované (myslil na Srby) přišli do Chebska již kolem roku 490, tedy před koncem V. století.
- ^ Sułowski, Zygmunt (1961). "Migracja Słowian na zachód w pierwszym tysiącleciu n. e." Roczniki Historyczne (in Polish). 27: 50–52. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
- ISBN 978-83-229-0421-3.
...Germaniae Suevos a Cervetiis dividit mergitur in oceanum". Według Szafarzyka, który odrzucił emendację Oberlina Cervetiis na Cheruscis, zagadkowy lud Cervetti to nikt inny, jak tylko Serbowie połabscy.
- ISBN 978-83-85463-89-4.
- ^ Moczulski, Leszek (2007). Narodziny Międzymorza: ukształtowanie ojczyzn, powstanie państw oraz układy geopolityczne wschodniej części Europy w późnej starożytności i we wczesnym średniowieczu (in Polish). Bellona. pp. 335–336.
Tak jest ze wzmianką Vibiusa Sequestra, pisarza z przełomu IV—V w., którą niektórzy badacze uznali za najwcześniejszą informację o Słowianach na Polabiu: Albis Germaniae Suevon a Cervetiis dividit (Vibii Sequestris, De fluminibus, fontibus, lacubus, memoribus, paludibus, montibus, gentibus, per litteras, wyd. Al. Riese, Geographi latini minores, Heilbronn 1878). Jeśli początek nazwy Cerve-tiis odpowiadał Serbe — chodziło o Serbów, jeśli Cherue — byli to Cheruskowie, choć nie można wykluczyć, że pod tą nazwą kryje się jeszcze inny lud (por. G. Labuda, Fragmenty dziejów Słowiańszczyzny Zachodniej, t. 1, Poznań 1960, s. 91; H. Lowmiański, Początki Polski..., t. II, Warszawa 1964, s. 296; J. Strzelczyk, Vibius Sequester [w:] Slownik Starożytności Słowiańskich, t. VI, Wroclaw 1977, s. 414). Pierwsza ewentualność sygeruje, że zachodnia eks-pansja Słowian rozpoczęta się kilka pokoleń wcześniej niż się obecnie przypuszcza, druga —że rozgraniczenie pomiędzy Cheruskami a Swebami (Gotonami przez Labę względnie Semnonami przez Soławę) uksztaltowało się — być może po klęsce Marboda — dalej na południowy wschód, niżby wynikało z Germanii Tacyta (patrz wyżej). Tyle tylko, że nie będzie to sytuacja z IV w. Istnienie styku serbsko-turyńskiego w początkach VII w. potwierdza Kronika Fredegara (Chronicarum quae dicuntw; Fredegari scholastici, wyd. B., Krusch, Monu-menta Gennaniae Bisiorka, Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum, t. II, Hannover 1888, s. 130); bylby on jednak późniejszy niż styk Franków ze Slowianami (Sldawami, Winklami) w Alpach i na osi Dunaju. Tyle tylko, te o takim styku możemy mówić dopiero w końcu VI w.
- ^ Fomina, Z.Ye. (2016). "Славянская топонимия в современной Германии в лингвокультуроло-гическоми лингво-историческом аспек" [Slavonic Toponymy in Linguoculturological and Linguo-historical Aspects in Germany]. Современные лингвистические и методико-дидактические исследования (in Russian). 1 (12): 30. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
Как следует из многотомного издания „Славянские древности" (1953) известного чешского ученого Любора Нидерле, первым историческим известием о славянах на Эльбе является запись Вибия Секвестра «De fluminibus» (VI век), в которой об Эльбе говорится: «Albis Suevos a Cervetiis dividit». Cervetii означает здесь наименованиесербскогоокруга (pagus) на правом берегу Эльбы, между Магдебургом и Лужицами, который в позднейших грамотах Оттона I, Оттона II и Генриха II упоминается под терминомCiervisti, Zerbisti, Kirvisti,нынешний Цербст[8]. В тот период, как пишет Любор Нидерле, а именно в 782 году, началось большое, имевшее мировое значение, наступление германцев против сла-вян. ПерейдяЭльбу, славяне представляли большую опасность для империи Карла Вели-кого. Для того, чтобы создать какой-то порядок на востоке, Карл Великий в 805 году соз-дал так называемый limes Sorabicus, который должен был стать границей экономических (торговых) связеймежду германцами и славянами[8].
- ^ ISBN 978-92-3-102812-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4725-9211-8.
- ^ Vlasto 1970, p. 142.
- ISBN 978-94-012-0984-7.
- ISBN 9788677430276.
- ^ Živković, Tibor (2012). De conversione Croatorum et Serborum: A Lost Source. Belgrade: The Institute of History. pp. 152–185.
- ^ Sava S. Vujić, Bogdan M. Basarić (1998). Severni Srbi (ne)zaboravljeni narod. Beograd. p. 40.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Miloš S. Milojević (1872). Odlomci Istorije Srba i srpskih jugoslavenskih zemalja u Turskoj i Austriji. U državnoj štampariji. p. 1.
- ^ Relja Novaković (1977). Odakle su Sebl dos̆il na Balkansko poluostrvo. Istorijski institut. p. 337.
- ISBN 978-90-04-38226-8.
- ^ V. von Keltsch, Der bairische Geograph, Alpreussische Monatsschr., 23 (1886),
- ^ Gerhard Billig, Zur Rekonstruktion der ältesten slawischen Burgbezirke im obersächsisch-meißnischen Raum auf der Grundlage des Bayerischen Geographen, Neues Archiv für sächsische Geschichte 66 (1995), s. 27-67
- ^ ISBN 978-86-6263-026-1.
- ISBN 978-1-136-81603-1.
- ^ Paul M. Barford (2001). The Early Slavs: Culture and Society in Early Medieval Eastern Europe. Cornell University Press. pp. 64–65, 77–78, 104–105. ISBN 9780801439773
- S2CID 163828473.
- ^ Golecka 2003, p. 57.
- ^ a b Golecka 2003, p. 58.
- ^ a b c d Matyniak 1968, p. 241.
- ^ Remus 2014, p. 4.
- JSTOR 4211979.
- ^ Golecka 2003, p. 61.
- ^ Ramet 2016, p. 227.
- ^ Pynsent 2000, p. 115.
- ^ The Group 1993, p. ?.
- ^ Zank 1998, p. 173.
- ^ Glaser 2007, p. 275.
- ^ Golecka 2003, p. 60.
- ISBN 9004510745.
- ^ Absees: Soviet and East European Abstracts Series, Volume 4. Oxford Microform Publications Limited. 1973. p. 182.
- ^ Absees: Soviet and East European Abstracts Series, Volume 4. Oxford Microform Publications Limited. 1973. p. 182.
- ISBN 978-1317599289.
- ISBN 0822315483.
- ^ "DOMOWINA - Medijowe wozjewjenje - Pressemitteilung- Press release". sorben.com. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ "Kulturhoheit: Sorben bitten Europa um Hilfe - International - Politik - Tagesspiegel". tagesspiegel.de. 7 March 2008. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- PMID 22968131.
- PMID 26332464.
- PMID 13680527.
- PMID 16435000.
- )
- ISBN 978-0470016176– via Wiley Online Library.
- .
- PMID 21559053.
- PMID 21798003.
- PMID 27459054.
- ^ Administrator. "Działalność Wojciecha (Wojcecha) Kócki w serbołużyckim ruchu narodowym w latach 1945 - 1950". prolusatia.pl. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ Administrator. "Akcja "Narodny Partyzan Łužica" (1946 - 1947) i jej reperkusje w serbołużyckim ruchu narodowym". prolusatia.pl. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ Paul Wexler, The Ashkenazic Jews, Slavica Publishers, 1993
- ^ Paul Wexler (1992), "From Serb Lands to Sorb Lands," in The Balkan Substratum of Yiddish: A Reassessment of the Unique Romance and Greek Components, Harrassowitz Verlag, 1992, p. 111
- ^ Germany's Sorbs celebrate Zapust festival. The local Germany's News in English. March 12, 2010.
- ^ German Slavic minority cultivates a colorful Easter tradition Archived 2011-10-01 at the Wayback Machine. Ethiopian Review. March 31, 2010.
- ^ According to the 1900 Census. See Ernst Tschernik: Die Entwicklung der Sorbischen Bevölkerung. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1954, P. 34.
- ^ Андреева, Г. Н. (2005). "Сорбы в ФРГ: ценный опыт правового регулирования статуса национального меньшинства в немецкой и российской литературе" (журнал) (1) (Социальные и гуманитарные науки ed.): 40–42.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ Гугнин, А. А. (1997). Введение в историю серболужицкой словесности и литературы от истоков до наших дней (PDF). М. p. 90.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ "Slovanský přehled" (26). 1934: 152.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ Šołta, Jan (1984). Nowy biografiski slownik k stawiznam a kulture Serbow. p. 115.
- ^ Wojciechowski, Zygmunt (1948). "Bolesław Chrobry i rok 1000". Przegląd Zachodni (in Polish) (3): 248.
- ISBN 978-83-7648-284-2
- ISBN 0-521-52183-1
- ^ "Лужички Срби, њихова историја и култура". // rastko.rs. Retrieved 2016-10-24.
- ^ a b Matyniak 1968, p. 240.
- ^ Matyniak 1968, p. 242.
- ^ a b Matyniak 1968, p. 243.
- ^ Słownik geograficzny Królestwa Polskiego i innych krajów słowiańskich, Tom VII (in Polish). Warszawa. 1886. p. 117.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Matyniak 1968, p. 244.
- ^ Lewaszkiewicz 2015, p. 88.
- ^ Lewaszkiewicz 2015, pp. 88–89.
- Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich: 184–186.
- ^ a b Lewaszkiewicz 2015, p. 91.
- ^ a b Leksykon Polactwa w Niemczech (in Polish). Opole: Związek Polaków w Niemczech. 1939. p. 364.
- ^ Lewaszkiewicz 2015, pp. 91–92.
- ^ Orzechowski, Marian (1976). "Kwestia serbołużycka w polskiej myśli politycznej w latach 1939–1947". Śląski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka (in Polish). XXXI (2). Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, Wydawnictwo Polskiej Akademii Nauk: 379.
- ^ Smołka, Leonard (1978). "Centrala prasowa Związku Polaków w Niemczech (1923–1939)". Kwartalnik Historii Prasy Polskiej (in Polish). XVII (2): 52, 59.
- ^ Lewaszkiewicz 2015, p. 93.
- ^ Lewaszkiewicz 2015, p. 94.
- ^ Lewaszkiewicz 2015, p. 92.
- ^ Orzechowski, pp. 380–381
- ^ Joanna Banik. "Grób Jana Skali". Zabytek.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 5 November 2023.
- ISBN 83-60151-00-8
- ^ "Verwaistes Erbe". 31 January 2020.
- ISSN 0485-3083.
- ^ Pałys, p. 92
- ^ Pałys, pp. 94–95
- ^ Joanna Banik (11 October 2021). "Offener Brief zum Beschluss des Hauptausschusses des Bautzener Stadtrats vom 6. Oktober 2021 zur Wiedererrichtung eines Bismarck-Denkmals". Serbski institut (in German). Retrieved 15 October 2023.
- ^ Pałys, pp. 89–90
- ^ Víšek, Zdeněk. "Lužičtí Srbové a česko-lužickosrbské vztahy". Listy (in Czech). Retrieved 29 September 2014.
- ^ ISBN 978-3-05-003343-3.
- ISBN 9788086495415.
- ]
- ^ Petr Kaleta: Češi o Lužických Srbech. Prague,2006. Page 15.
- ^ "Sorben". sachsen.de. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ISBN 0 70440236 X.
- ^ "Texas Wendish Heritage". Archived from the original on 23 February 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
Sources
- Glaser, Konstanze (2007). Minority Languages and Cultural Diversity in Europe: Gaelic and Sorbian Perspectives. Multilingual Matters. ISBN 9781853599323.
- Golecka, Aneta (2003). "Serbołużyczanie w Niemczech". Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska. Sectio K, Politologia (in Polish). X. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie.
- Lewaszkiewicz, Tadeusz (2015). "Zarys dziejów sorabistyki i zainteresowań Łużycami w Wielkopolsce". In Kurowska, Hanna (ed.). Kapitał społeczno-polityczny Serbołużyczan (in Polish). Zielona Góra: Uniwersytet Zielonogórski.
- Matyniak, Alojzy S. (1968). "Kontakty kulturalne polsko-serbołużyckie w XVIII w.". Śląski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka (in Polish). XXIII (2). Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich.
- ISBN 9780903425018.
- ISBN 9789633863107.
- Remus, Thérèse (2014). Endangered minority languages. A comparison of the Upper Sorbian and North Frisian cases. ISBN 9783656685258.
- The Group (1993). Minority Rights Group International Report. Minority Rights. ISBN 9781897693001.
- Zank, W. (1998). The German Melting Pot: Multiculturality in Historical Perspective. ISBN 9780230375208.
- Stone, Gerald (2015). The Smallest Slavonic Nation: The Sorbs of Lusatia. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4742-4154-0.
- Veeramah; et al. (2011). "Genetic variation in the Sorbs of eastern Germany in the context of broader European genetic diversity". PMID 21559053.
- Žura, Slavica Vrkić (2011). "Lužički Srbi – Najmanji slavenski narod". Ethnologica Dalmatica (in Croatian). 18 (1): 93–130.
Further reading
- Filip Gańczak Mniejszość w czasach popkultury, Newsweek, nr 22/2007, 03.06.2007.
- W kręgu Krabata. Szkice o Juriju Brězanie, literaturze, kulturze i językach łużyckich, pod red. J.Zarka, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego, Katowice, 2002.
- Mirosław Cygański, Rafał Leszczyński Zarys dziejów narodowościowych Łużyczan PIN, Instytut Śląski, Opole 1997.
- Die Sorben in Deutschland, pod red. M.Schiemann, Stiftung für das sorbische Volk, Görlitz 1997.
- Mały informator o Serbołużyczanach w Niemczech, pod red. J.Pětrowej, Załožba za serbski lud, 1997.
- Dolnoserbske nałogi/Obyczaje Dolnych Łużyc, pod red. M.Stock, Załožba za serbski lud, 1997.
- "Rys dziejów serbołużyckich" Wilhelm Bogusławski Piotrogród 1861
- "Prołuż Akademicki Związek Przyjaciół Łużyc" Jakub Brodacki. Polska Grupa Marketingowa 2006 ISBN 83-60151-00-8.
- "Polska wobec Łużyc w drugiej połowie XX wieku. Wybrane problemy", Mieczkowska Małgorzata, Szczecin 2006 ISBN 83-7241-487-4.
- Wukasch, C. (2004) A Rock Against Alien Waves: A History of the Wends. Concordia University Press: Austin, TX ISBN 978-1-881848-07-3.
- "Sorbs," David Zersen, in Germans and the Americas: Culture, Politics and History, 3 vols., edited by Thomas Adam. ABC-CLIO, 2005.
External links
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). 1911. .
- The Domowina Institution
- SERBSKE NOWINY—Sorbian newspaper
- SERBSKI INSTITUT—Sorbian history and culture
- Independent Sorbian internet magazine Archived 2007-08-26 at the Wayback Machine
- Sorbian emigration into Australia
- Project Rastko - Lusatia, Electronic Library of Sorbian-Serbian Ties
- Texas Wendish Heritage Society
- Wendish Heritage Society of Australia