Stoicism
Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy that flourished in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.[1] The Stoics believed that the practice of virtue is enough to achieve eudaimonia: a well-lived life. The Stoics identified the path to achieving it with a life spent practicing the four virtues in everyday life: wisdom, courage, temperance or moderation, and justice, and living in accordance with nature. It was founded in the ancient Agora of Athens by Zeno of Citium around 300 BC.
Alongside
Stoicism flourished throughout the
History
The name Stoicism derives from the
Zeno's ideas developed from those of the Cynics (brought to him by Crates of Thebes), whose founding father, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates. Zeno's most influential successor was Chrysippus, who followed Cleanthes as leader of the school, and was responsible for molding what is now called Stoicism.[7] Stoicism became the foremost popular philosophy among the educated elite in the Hellenistic world and the Roman Empire[8] to the point where, in the words of Gilbert Murray, "nearly all the successors of Alexander [...] professed themselves Stoics".[9] Later Roman Stoics focused on promoting a life in harmony within the universe within which we are active participants.
Scholars[10] usually divide the history of Stoicism into three phases: the Early Stoa, from Zeno's founding to Antipater, the Middle Stoa, including Panaetius and Posidonius, and the Late Stoa, including Musonius Rufus, Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. No complete works survived from the first two phases of Stoicism. Only Roman texts from the Late Stoa survived.[11]
Philosophical system
Philosophy does not promise to secure anything external for man, otherwise it would be admitting something that lies beyond its proper subject-matter. For as the material of the carpenter is wood, and that of statuary bronze, so the subject-matter of the art of living is each person's own life.
— Epictetus, Discourses 1.15.2, Robin Hard revised translation
Of all the schools of ancient philosophy, Stoicism made the greatest claim to being utterly systematic.[12] In the view of the Stoics, philosophy is the practice of virtue, and virtue, the highest form of which is utility, is generally speaking, constructed from ideals of logic, monistic physics, and naturalistic ethics.[13] These three ideals constitute virtue which is necessary for 'living a well reasoned life', seeing as they are all parts of a logos, or philosophical discourse, which includes the mind's rational dialogue with itself.[14] Of them, the Stoics emphasized ethics as the main focus of human knowledge, though their logical theories were of more interest for later philosophers.
Stoicism teaches the development of self-control as a means of overcoming destructive emotions; the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal reason (logos). Stoicism's primary aspect involves improving the individual's ethical and moral well-being: "Virtue consists in a will that is in agreement with Nature".[15] This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy",[16] and to accept even slaves as "equals of other men, because all men alike are products of nature".[17]
The Stoic ethic espouses a deterministic perspective; in regard to those who lack Stoic virtue, Cleanthes once opined that the wicked man is "like a dog tied to a cart, and compelled to go wherever it goes".[15] A Stoic of virtue, by contrast, would amend his will to suit the world and remain, in the words of Epictetus, "sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and happy",[16] thus positing a "completely autonomous" individual will and at the same time a universe that is "a rigidly deterministic single whole". This viewpoint was later described as "Classical Pantheism" (and was adopted by Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza).[18]
Logic
Bobzien also notes that, "Chrysippus wrote over 300 books on logic, on virtually any topic logic today concerns itself with, including
Categories
The Stoics held that all
They held that there were four
- Substance (ὑποκείμενον): The primary matter, formless substance, (ousia) that things are made of
- pneuma: air or breath), which informs the matter
- Somehow disposed (πως ἔχον): Particular characteristics, not present within the object, such as size, shape, action, and posture
- Somehow disposed in relation to something (πρός τί πως ἔχον): Characteristics related to other phenomena, such as the position of an object within time and space relative to other objects
The Stoics outlined that our own actions, thoughts, and reactions are within our control. The opening paragraph of the Enchiridion states the categories as: "Some things in the world are up to us, while others are not. Up to us are our faculties of judgment, motivation, desire, and aversion. In short, whatever is our own doing."[23] These suggest a space that is up to us or within our power. A simple example of the Stoic categories in use is provided by Jacques Brunschwig:
I am a certain lump of matter, and thereby a substance, an existent something (and thus far that is all); I am a man, and this individual man that I am, and thereby qualified by a common quality and a peculiar one; I am sitting or standing, disposed in a certain way; I am the father of my children, the fellow citizen of my fellow citizens, disposed in a certain way in relation to something else.[24]
Epistemology
The Stoics propounded that knowledge can be attained through the use of reason. Truth can be distinguished from fallacy—even if, in practice, only an approximation can be made. According to the Stoics, the senses constantly receive sensations: pulsations that pass from objects through the senses to the mind, where they leave an impression in the imagination (phantasiai) (an impression arising from the mind was called a phantasma).[25]
The mind has the ability to judge (συγκατάθεσις, synkatathesis)—approve or reject—an impression, enabling it to distinguish a true representation of reality from one that is false. Some impressions can be assented to immediately, but others can achieve only varying degrees of hesitant approval, which can be labeled belief or opinion (doxa). It is only through reason that we gain clear comprehension and conviction (katalepsis). Certain and true knowledge (episteme), achievable by the Stoic sage, can be attained only by verifying the conviction with the expertise of one's peers and the collective judgment of humankind.
Physics
According to the Stoics, the
The universe itself is God and the universal outpouring of its soul; it is this same world's guiding principle, operating in mind and reason, together with the common nature of things and the totality that embraces all existence; then the foreordained might and necessity of the future; then fire and the principle of aether; then those elements whose natural state is one of flux and transition, such as water, earth, and air; then the sun, the moon, the stars; and the universal existence in which all things are contained.
— Chrysippus, in Cicero, De Natura Deorum, i. 39
Everything is subject to the laws of Fate, for the Universe acts according to its own nature, and the nature of the passive matter it governs. The souls of humans and animals are emanations from this primordial Fire, and are, likewise, subject to Fate:
Constantly regard the universe as one living being, having one substance and one soul; and observe how all things have reference to one perception, the perception of this one living being; and how all things act with one movement; and how all things are the cooperating causes of all things that exist; observe too the continuous spinning of the thread and the structure of the web.
— Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iv. 40
Individual souls are perishable by nature, and can be "transmuted and diffused, assuming a fiery nature by being received into the seminal reason ("
Stoic theology is a
Stoicism does not posit a beginning or end to the Universe.
Ethics
The foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself, in wisdom and self-control. One must therefore strive to be free of the passions. For the Stoics, reason meant using logic and understanding the processes of nature—the logos or universal reason, inherent in all things.[32] The Greek word pathos was a wide-ranging term indicating an infliction one suffers.[33] The Stoics used the word to discuss many common emotions such as anger, fear and excessive joy.[34] A passion is a disturbing and misleading force in the mind which occurs because of a failure to reason correctly.[33]
For the Stoic Chrysippus, the passions are evaluative judgements.[35] A person experiencing such an emotion has incorrectly valued an indifferent thing.[36] A fault of judgement, some false notion of good or evil, lies at the root of each passion.[37] Incorrect judgement as to a present good gives rise to delight, while lust is a wrong estimate about the future.[37] Unreal imaginings of evil cause distress about the present, or fear for the future.[37] The ideal Stoic would instead measure things at their real value,[37] and see that the passions are not natural.[38] To be free of the passions is to have a happiness which is self-contained.[38] There would be nothing to fear—for unreason is the only evil; no cause for anger—for others cannot harm you.[38]
Passions
The Stoics arranged the passions under four headings: distress, pleasure, fear and lust.[39] One report of the Stoic definitions of these passions appears in the treatise On Passions by Pseudo-Andronicus (trans. Long & Sedley, pg. 411, modified):
- Distress (lupē): Distress is an irrational contraction, or a fresh opinion that something bad is present, at which people think it right to be depressed.
- Fear (phobos): Fear is an irrational aversion, or avoidance of an expected danger.
- Lust (epithumia): goodbut in reality bad.
- Delight (hēdonē): Delight is an irrational swelling, or a fresh opinion that something good is present, at which people think it right to be elated.
Present | Future | |
---|---|---|
Good | Delight | Lust |
Evil | Distress | Fear |
Two of these passions (distress and delight) refer to emotions currently present, and two of these (fear and lust) refer to emotions directed at the future.[39] Thus there are just two states directed at the prospect of good and evil, but subdivided as to whether they are present or future:[40] Numerous subdivisions of the same class were brought under the head of the separate passions:[41]
- Distress: Envy, Rivalry, Jealousy, Compassion, Anxiety, Mourning, Sadness, Troubling, Grief, Lamenting, Depression, Vexation, Despondency.
- Fear: Sluggishness, Timidity, Consternation, Pusillanimity, Bewilderment, and Faintheartedness.
- Lust: Wrath, Greed, and Longing.
- Delight: Malice, Rapture, and Ostentation.
The wise person (sophos) is someone who is free from the passions (apatheia). Instead the sage experiences good-feelings (eupatheia) which are clear-headed.[42] These emotional impulses are not excessive, but nor are they diminished emotions.[43][44] Instead they are the correct rational emotions.[44] The Stoics listed the good-feelings under the headings of joy (chara), wish (boulesis), and caution (eulabeia).[36] Thus if something is present which is a genuine good, then the wise person experiences an uplift in the soul—joy (chara).[45] The Stoics also subdivided the good-feelings:[46]
- Joy: Enjoyment, Cheerfulness, Good spirits
- Wish: Good intent, Goodwill, Welcoming, Cherishing, Love
- Caution: Moral shame, Reverence
Suicide
The Stoics accepted that suicide was permissible for the wise person in circumstances that might prevent them from living a virtuous life,[47] such as if they fell victim to severe pain or disease,[47] but otherwise suicide would usually be seen as a rejection of one's social duty.[48] For example, Plutarch reports that accepting life under tyranny would have compromised Cato's self-consistency (constantia) as a Stoic and impaired his freedom to make the honorable moral choices.[49]
Love and sexuality
Early Stoics differed significantly from late Stoics in their views of
Zeno favored love over desire, clarifying that the ultimate goal of sexuality should be virtue and friendship.
Legacy
Neoplatonism
Plotinus criticized both Aristotle's Categories and those of the Stoics. His student Porphyry, however, defended Aristotle's scheme. He justified this by arguing that they be interpreted strictly as expressions, rather than as metaphysical realities. The approach can be justified, at least in part, by Aristotle's own words in The Categories. Boethius' acceptance of Porphyry's interpretation led to their being accepted by Scholastic philosophy.[citation needed]
Christianity
The
Modern
The modern usage is a "person who represses feelings or endures patiently".[56] The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry on Stoicism notes, "the sense of the English adjective 'stoical' is not utterly misleading with regard to its philosophical origins".[57]
The revival of Stoicism in the 20th century can be traced to the publication of Problems in Stoicism
Psychology and psychotherapy
Stoic philosophy was the original philosophical inspiration for modern
This subsequently became a common element in the socialization phase of many other approaches to CBT. The question of Stoicism's influence on modern psychotherapy, particularly REBT and CBT, was described in detail in The Philosophy of Cognitive–Behavioural Therapy by Donald Robertson.[62] Several early 20th-century psychotherapists were influenced by Stoicism, most notably the "rational persuasion" school founded by the Swiss neurologist and psychotherapist Paul Dubois, who drew heavily on Stoicism in his clinical work and encouraged his clients to study passages from Seneca the Younger as homework assignments.
Similarities of modern Stoicism and third-wave CBT have been suggested as well, and individual reports of its potency in treating depression have been published.[63] There has also been interest in applying the tenets of ancient Stoicism to the human origin story,[64] environmental education,[65] vegetarianism[66] and the modern challenges of sustainable development, material consumption and consumerism.[67][68][69]
Seamus Mac Suibhne has described the practices of spiritual exercises as influencing those of reflective practice.[70] Many parallels between Stoic spiritual exercises and modern cognitive behavioral therapy have been identified.[62] According to philosopher Pierre Hadot, philosophy for a Stoic is not just a set of beliefs or ethical claims; it is a way of life involving constant practice and training (or "askēsis"), an active process of constant practice and self-reminder. Epictetus in his Discourses, distinguished between three types of act: judgment, desire, and inclination.[71] which Hadot identifies these three acts with logic, physics and ethics respectively.[72] Hadot writes that in the Meditations, "Each maxim develops either one of these very characteristic topoi [i.e., acts], or two of them or three of them."[73]
See also
References
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- ^ Gilbert Murray, The Stoic Philosophy (1915), p. 25. In Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (1946).
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- ^ A.A.Long, Hellenistic Philosophy, p. 115.
- ^ Long, A.A.; Sedley, D.N. (1987). The Hellenistic Philosophers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 160.
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- ^ Hadot, P. (1987) Exercices spirituels et philosophie antique. Paris, 2nd ed., p. 135.
Further reading
Primary sources
- Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1945 c. 1927). Cicero : Tusculan Disputations (Loeb Classical Library, No. 141) 2nd ed. trans. by J. E. King. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard UP.
- Long, A. A., Sedley, D. N. (1987). The Hellenistic Philosophers: vol. 1. translations of the principal sources with philosophical commentary. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
- Inwood, Brad & Gerson Lloyd P. (eds.) The Stoics Reader: Selected Writings and Testimonia Indianapolis: Hackett 2008.
Seneca
- Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (transl. Robin Campbell), Letters from a Stoic: Epistulae Morales Ad Lucilium (1969, reprint 2004) ISBN 0140442103
Epictetus
- Long, George Enchiridion by Epictetus, Prometheus Books, Reprint ed., January 1955.
- Gill C. Epictetus, The Discourses, Everyman 1995.
- Harvard University Press Epictetus Discourses Books 1 and 2, Loeb Classical Library Nr. 131, June 1925.
- Harvard University Press Epictetus Discourses Books 3 and 4, Loeb Classical Library Nr. 218, June 1928.
Marcus Aurelius
Fragment collections
Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta is a collection by Hans von Arnim of fragments and testimonia of the earlier Stoics, published in 1903–1905 as part of the Bibliotheca Teubneriana. It includes the fragments and testimonia of Zeno of Citium, Chrysippus and their immediate followers. At first the work consisted of three volumes, to which Maximilian Adler in 1924 added a fourth, containing general indices. Teubner reprinted the whole work in 1964.
Studies
- Annas, Julia (1994), Hellenistic Philosophy of Mind, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520076594
- Bakalis, Nikolaos, Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics. Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, 2005, ISBN 1412048435
- ISBN 0691016607
- Brennan, Tad, The Stoic Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005; paperback 2006)
- Brooke, Christopher. Philosophic Pride: Stoicism and Political Thought from Lipsius to Rousseau (Princeton UP, 2012) excerpts Archived 29 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine
- Capes, William Wolfe (1880), Stoicism, Pott, Young, & Co.
- de Harven, Vanessa (2010). Everything is Something: Why the Stoic ontology is principled, coherent and comprehensive Archived 26 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Paper presented to Department of Philosophy, Berkeley University.
- de Harven, Vanessa (2012). The Coherence of Stoic Ontology Archived 22 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine. PhD dissertation, Department of Philosophy, Berkeley University.
- Graver, Margaret (2007), Stoicism and Emotion, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226305578
- Hall, Ron, Secundum Naturam (According to Nature) Archived 8 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Stoic Therapy, LLC, 2021.
- Inwood, Brad (1999), "Stoic Ethics", in Algra, Keimpe; Barnes, Johnathan; Mansfield, Jaap; Schofield, Malcolm (eds.), The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521250283
- Inwood, Brad (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to The Stoics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003)
- ISBN 0253223768
- ISBN 0520229746
- Menn, Stephen (1999). 'The Stoic Theory of Categories', in Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, Volume XVII. ISBN 0198250193, pp. 215–247.
- Robertson, Donald, The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy (London: Karnac, 2010) ISBN 978-1855757561
- Robertson, Donald, How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Archived 4 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine. 'New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019.
- Sellars, John, Stoicism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006) ISBN 1844650537
- Sorabji, Richard (2000), Emotion and Peace of Mind: From Stoic Agitation to Christian Temptation, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198250050
- ISBN 0826496083
- Strange, Steven (ed.), Stoicism: Traditions and Transformations (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2004) ISBN 0521827094
- Zeller, Eduard; Reichel, Oswald J., The Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1892
External links
- Baltzly, Dirk. "Stoicism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- "Stoicism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- "Stoic Ethics". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- "Stoic Philosophy of Mind". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Hicks, Robert Drew (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).
- The Stoic Therapy eLibrary
- The Stoic Library Archived 25 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine
- Stoic Logic: The Dialectic from Zeno to Chrysippus
- Annotated Bibliography on Ancient Stoic Dialectic
- "A bibliography on Stoicism by the Stoic Foundation". Archived from the original on 1 November 2012. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
- BBC Radio 4's In Our Time programme on Stoicism (requires Flash)
- The Stoic Registry (formerly New Stoa) :Online Stoic Community
- Modern Stoicism (Stoic Week and Stoicon)