User:Est. 2021/sandbox/Etruscan

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Timeline

Tyrsenian languages
Villanovan culture
Etruscan civilization
Proto-Villanovan culture 1200–901 BC
Etruscan civilization
(900–27 BC)[1] 		Villanovan period
(900–720 BC) 		Villanovan I 900–800 BC
Villanovan II 800–720 BC
Villanovan III (Bologna area) 720-680 BC [2]
Villanovan IV (Bologna area) 680-540 BC [2]
Orientalizing period
(720–580 BC) 		Early Orientalizing 720–680 BC
Middle Orientalizing 680–625 BC
Late Orientalizing 625–580 BC
Archaic period
(580–480 BC) 		Archaic 580–480 BC
Classical period
(480–320 BC) 		Classical 480–320 BC
Hellenistic period
(320–27 BC) 		Hellenistic 320–27 BC

Sources

Historiography

Evidence

Archeologic evidence

  • Rhaetic language spoken in the Alps north of Etruria.[11][a]
  • The
    Lepontic where it seems to represent the sound /d/.[26]

Linguistic evidence

Writing

Further information: Old Italic scripts, Etruscan alphabet § Letters, and Elder Futhark

The following table shows the ancient Italic scripts that are presumed to be related to the Etruscan alphabet. Symbols that are assumed to be correspondent are placed on the same column. Many symbols occur with two or more variant forms in the same script; only one variant is shown here. The notations [←] and [→] indicate that the shapes shown were used when writing right-to-left and left-to-right, respectively.

Warning: For the languages marked [?] the appearance of the "Letters" in the table is whatever one's browser's Unicode font shows for the corresponding code points in the Old Italic Unicode block. The same code point represents different symbol shapes in different languages; therefore, to display those glyph images properly one needs to use a Unicode font specific to that language.

Phoenician
Letter [←]
Value ʾ b g d h w z ḥ ṭ y k l m n s ʿ p ṣ q r š t
Western Greek [27][28]
Letter [→]
Value a b ɡ
d
 e w dz~z~zd h tʰ i k
l
 m
n
 ks o p ts~s k
r
 s
t
 u ks pʰ kʰ
Transcription Α Β Γ Δ Ε Ϝ Ζ Η Θ Ι Κ Λ Μ Ν Ξ Ο Π Ϻ Ϙ Ρ Σ Τ Υ X Φ Ψ
Old Italic (Unicode block) [29]
Letter [←] 𐌀 𐌁 𐌂 𐌃 𐌄 𐌅 𐌆 𐌇 𐌈 𐌉

numeral: 𐌠

𐌊 𐌋 𐌌 𐌍 𐌎 𐌏 𐌐 𐌑 𐌒 𐌛

𐌓

𐌔 𐌕 𐌖

numeral: 𐌡

𐌗

numeral: 𐌢

𐌘 𐌙 𐌚 𐌞 𐌝 𐌟 𐌜 south: 𐌯

north: 𐌮

numeral: 𐌣

Letter [→]
Etruscan - from 7th century BC [30][31][32]
Marsiliana [←]
Archaic (to 5th c.) [←]
Neo (4th to 1st c.) [←]
Value a — k — e w ts h tʰ i k
l
 		m
n
 		— — p ʃ~s k
r
 		s~ʃ
t
 		u — pʰ kʰ f
Transcription a b c d e v z h θ ~ th ~ ѳ i k l m n ş o p ś ~ σ́ q r s t u x ~ ṡ φ ψ ~ χ 8 ~ f
Oscan - from 5th century BC [33]
Letter [←]
Value a b g
d
 ɛ v ts x? i k
l
 m
n
 p
r
 s
t
 oː f o e
Transcription A B G D E V Z H I K L M N P R S T U F Ú Í
Lepontic - 7th to 5th century BC
Letter [?][→] 𐌀

𐌅

𐌄 𐌅 𐌆 𐌈 𐌉 𐌊 𐌋 𐌌 𐌍 𐌏

ᛟ

𐌐

𐌑

ᛗ

ᛞ

𐌓 ᛊ

𐌔

𐌕 𐌖 𐌗
Transcription A E V Z Θ I K L M N O P Ś R S T U X χ
South Picene - from 6th century BC
Letter [?][→] 𐌀 𐌁 𐌂 𐌃 𐌄 𐌅 𐌇 𐌉 𐌊 𐌋 𐌌 𐌍 𐌏 𐌐 𐌒 𐌓 𐌔 𐌕 𐌖 𐌚 𐌞 𐌝 𐌟
Transcription A B G D E V H I K L M N O P Q R S T U F Ú Í *
Elder Futhark
Early [?][←] 𐌡

𐌓 𐌅
(c./l.) 		𐌃 𐌊 + 𐌂

𐌗

𐌛

𐌕

𐌉 ᛈ
(c.)
(c.)

ᛊ

t

𐌣

𐌁

ᛗ
(l.) 		l
(c.) 		ᛞ
(l.) 		ᛟ
(l.)
Middle [→] f u th,þ a r k g w h n i j p ï,ei z s t b e m l ŋ d o
Later [→] ᚠ ᚢ ᚦ ᚨ ᚱ ᚲ ᚷ ᚹ ᚺ ᚾ ᛁ ᛃ ᛈ ᛇ ᛉ ᛊ ᛏ ᛒ ᛖ ᛗ ᛚ ᛜ ᛞ ᛟ
Value[34] f u θ~ð a
r
 k g w h
n
 i j p ɪ~æ z~r₂ s
t
 b e m
l
 ŋ
d
 o
Transcription f u þ ~ th a r k g w h n i j p ï ~ æ z ~ ʀ s t b e m l ŋ d o
The alphabets of Este (Venetic), Magrè and Bolzano/Bozen-Sanzeno (Raetic), Sondrio (Camunic), Lugano (Lepontic)
spearhead of Kovel: Gothic: [←] TᛁᛚᚨᚱᛁDᛊ, romanized: tilarids, lit.
 'target rider'

Missing from the above table:

Wording

Languages Refs
English Old Norse Etruscan Latin
gods
aesir
aiser
 dives [35]
black surtr śur niger
Surt (
fire god
) 		Surtr Śuri Vulcan
Odin (
father god
)
Óðinn(az)[b]
Tin(as)[c]
Iūpiter
Note
*Wōðuna(z) › Voltumna
θ (as in Pyrgi Tablets
)
Bibliography

Genetic evidence

Etruscan votive heads, IV-II century BC

There have been a number of genetic studies of Etruscans and modern Tuscans compared with other populations, some of which indicate the local, European origin of Etruscans and others supportive of an allochthonous origin. In general, the direct testing of ancient Etruscan DNA has supported a deep, local origin, while the testing of modern samples as a proxy for Etruscans is rather inconclusive and inconsistent.[36][37]

2013 (2004, 2007)

The very large

Mediterranean basin. The ancient (30 Etruscans, 27 Medieval Tuscans) and modern DNA sequences (370 Tuscans) were subjected to several million computer simulation runs, showing that the Etruscans can be considered ancestral to Medieval and, especially in the subpopulations from Casentino and Volterra, of modern Tuscans; modern populations from Murlo and Florence, by contrast, were shown not to continue the Medieval population. By further considering two Anatolian samples (35 and 123 individuals), it was estimated that the genetic links between Tuscany and Anatolia date back to at least 5,000 years ago, and the "most likely separation time between Tuscany and Western Anatolia falls around 7,600 years ago", strongly suggesting that the Etruscan culture developed locally, and not as an immediate consequence of immigration from the Eastern Mediterranean shores. According to the study, ancient Etruscan mtDNA is closest among modern European populations and is not particularly close to Anatolian or other Eastern Mediterranean populations. Among ancient populations based on mtDNA, ancient Etruscans were found to be closest to LBK Neolithic farmers from Central Europe.[38][39]

This result is largely in line with previous mtDNA results from 2004 (in a smaller study also based on ancient DNA), and contradictory to results from 2007 (based on modern DNA). The 2004 study was based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from 80 bone samples, reduced to 28 bone samples in the analysis phase, taken from tombs dating from the seventh century to the third century BC from Veneto, Tuscany, Lazio and Campania.[40] This study found that the ancient DNA extracted from the Etruscan remains had some affinities with modern European populations including Germans, English people from Cornwall, and Tuscans in Italy. In addition the Etruscan samples possibly revealed more genetic inheritance from the eastern and southern Mediterranean than modern Italian samples contain. The study was marred by concerns that mtDNA sequences from the archeological samples represented severely damaged or contaminated DNA;[41] however, subsequent investigation showed that the samples passed the most stringent tests of DNA degradation available.[42]

2018

A mtDNA study, published in 2018 in the journal

Eneolithic Age and the Roman Age.[43]

2019

  • A 2019 genetic study by
    Steppe in the same percentages as found in the previously analyzed Iron Age Latins, and that the Etruscans' DNA completely lacks a signal of recent admixture with Anatolia or the Eastern Mediterranean, concluding that the Etruscans had a genetic profile similar to their Latin neighbors. Both Etruscans and Latins joined firmly the European cluster, 75% of the Etruscan male individuals were found to belong to haplogroup R1b, especially R1b-P312 and its derivative R1b-L2 whose direct ancestor is R1b-U152, while the most common mitochondrial DNA haplogroup among the Etruscans was H.[20]

A 2019 genetic study published in the journal

U5a1, H, T2b32, K1a4.[47]
Therefore, Etruscans had also Steppe-related ancestry despite speaking a pre-Indo-European language.

2021

A 2021 study by the

Steppe in the same percentages found in the previously analyzed samples of Iron Age Latins, and added that in the DNA of the Etruscans was completely absent a signal of recent admixture with Anatolia or the Eastern Mediterranean, concluding that the Etruscans had a genetic profile similar to that of their early Iron Age Latin neighbors. Both Etruscans and Latins belonged firmly to the European cluster, 75% of the samples of Etruscan male individuals were found to belong to haplogroup R1b, especially R1b-P312 and its derivative R1b-L2 whose direct ancestor is R1b-U152. While regarding mitochondrial DNA haplogroups, the most prevalent was largely H, followed by J and T. Uniparental marker data and autosomal DNA data from samples of Iron Age Etruscan individuals suggest that Etruria received migrations rich of the ancestral Steppe component during the 2nd millennium BC, related to the spread of Indo-European languages, starting with the Bell Beaker culture, and that these migrations merged with populations of the oldest pre-Indo-European layer present since at least the Neolithic period, but it was the latter's language that survived, a situation similar to what happened in the Basque region of northern Spain. The study has also concluded that the samples analyzed show that the Etruscans kept their genetic profile unchanged for almost 1000 years, despite the sparse presence in Etruria of foreigners, and that a demographic change in Etruria occurred only from the Roman imperial period, in which there is the arrival in and intermixture into the local population of ancestral components from the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Analysis of samples of individuals who lived in the Roman imperial period and those of the Medieval Age also suggest that the genetic landscape of present-day central Italy was formed largely around 1000 years ago after the Barbarian invasions, and that the arrival of the Germanic Lombards in Italy contributed to the formation of the gene pool of the modern population of Tuscany and northern Latium.[20]

2007

An mtDNA study from 2007, by contrast, earlier suggested a

Aeneolithic in Italy and Germany.[43] All the mtDNA haplogroups found in the modern sample from Murlo and classified by Achilli et al. as of Near Eastern origin are actually widespread in modern samples from other areas of Italy and Europe with no link with the Etruscans.[50]

2018

A recent Y-DNA study from 2018 on a modern sample of 113 individuals from

LBK culture in Austria,[55] a J2a1a was found in a Middle Neolithic Sopot culture sample from Croatia,[55] a J2a was found in a Late Neolithic Lengyel Culture sample from Hungary.[56] In 2019, in a Stanford study published in Science, two ancient samples from the Neolithic settlement of Ripabianca di Monterado in the province of Ancona, in the Marche region of Italy, were found to be Y-DNA J-L26 and J-M304.[44] In 2021, two more ancient samples from the Chalcolitich settlement of Grotta La Sassa, in the province of Latina in southern Lazio, were found to be Y-DNA J2a7-Z2397.[57]
Therefore, Y-DNA J2a-M67 is likely in Italy since the Neolithic and can't be the proof of recent contacts with Anatolia.

Recent

Recent studies on the population structure of modern-day Italians have shown that in Italy there is a north–south cline for Y-chromosome lineages and autosomal loci, with a clear differentiation of peninsular Italians from Sardinians, and that modern Tuscans are the population of central Italy closest genetically to the inhabitants of northern Italy.[58] A 2019 study, based on autosomal DNA of 1616 individuals from all 20 Italian administrative regions, concludes that Tuscans join the northern Italian cluster, close to the inhabitants of Liguria and Emilia-Romagna.[59] A 2013 study, based on uniparental markers of 884 unrelated individuals from 23 Italian locations, had shown that the structure observed for the paternal lineages in continental Italy and Sicily suggests a shared genetic background between people from Tuscany and Northern Italy from one side, and people from Southern Italy and the Adriatic coast from the other side. The most frequent Y-DNA haplogroups in the group represented by populations from North-Western Italy, including Tuscany and most of the Padana plain, are four R1b-lineages (R-U152*, R-M269*, R-P312* and R-L2*).[53]

In the collective volume Etruscology published in 2017, British archeologist Phil Perkins provides an analysis of the state of DNA studies and writes that "none of the DNA studies to date conclusively prove that Etruscans were an intrusive population in Italy that originated in the Eastern Mediterranean or Anatolia".[37]

2021 theory

In his book A Short History of Humanity published in 2021, German geneticist

Paleo-Sardinian and Minoan) "developed on the continent in the course of the Neolithic Revolution".[60]

Notes and references

Notes

  1. ^ After more than 90 years of archaeological excavations at Lemnos, nothing has been found that would support a migration from Lemnos to Etruria,[12] the indigenous inhabitants of Lemnos, also called in ancient times Sinteis, were the Sintians, a Thracian population.[12] Some scholars believe the Lemnian language might have arrived in the Aegean Sea during the Late Bronze Age, when Mycenaean rulers recruited groups of mercenaries from Sicily, Sardinia and various parts of the Italian peninsula.[13] Other scholars have concluded that the Lemnian inscriptions might be due to an Etruscan commercial settlement on the island that took place before 700 BC, not related to the Sea Peoples.[14][15][16][17][18]
  2. Old High German
    : Wuotan; from *(W)ōðin(az) / *(W)ōðan(az) / *Wōtan(az)
  3. Tins
    ; from *(Wō)ðin(as) / *(Wō)tin(as)

References

  1. ISBN 978-8820348700
    .
  2. ^ a b Giovanna Bermond Montanari (2004). "L'Italia preromana. I siti etruschi: Bologna" (in Italian). Treccani. Retrieved October 12, 2019.
  3. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 1.17–19
  4. ^ Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome (Ab Urbe Condita), Book 5
  5. ISBN 978-8878145337
    . Il termine "Villanoviano" è entrato nella letteratura archeologica quando, a metà dell '800, il conte Gozzadini mise in luce le prime tombe ad incinerazione nella sua proprietà di Villanova di Castenaso, in località Caselle (BO). La cultura villanoviana coincide con il periodo più antico della civiltà etrusca, in particolare durante i secoli IX e VIII a.C. e i termini di Villanoviano I, II e III, utilizzati dagli archeologi per scandire le fasi evolutive, costituiscono partizioni convenzionali della prima età del Ferro
  6. ISBN 9788843022618
    .
  7. ^ Giovanni Colonna (2000). "I caratteri originali della civiltà Etrusca". In Mario Torelli (ed.). Gi Etruschi (in Italian). Milano: Bompiani. pp. 25–41.
  8. ^ Dominique Briquel (2000). "Le origini degli Etruschi: una questione dibattuta fin dall'antichità". In Mario Torelli (ed.). Gi Etruschi (in Italian). Milano: Bompiani. pp. 43–51.
  9. ^ Gilda Bartoloni (2000). "Le origini e la diffusione della cultura villanoviana". In Mario Torelli (ed.). Gi Etruschi (in Italian). Milano: Bompiani. pp. 53–71.
  10. ^
    ISBN 0842523340
    .
  11. ^ Rix 1998. Rätisch und Etruskisch (Innsbruck).
  12. ^
    ISBN 978-960-9559-03-4
    .
  13. ^ De Ligt, Luuk. "An Eteocretan Inscription from Praisos and the Homeland of the Sea peoples" (PDF). talanta.nl. ALANTA XL-XLI (2008–2009), 151–172.
  14. ISBN 978-88-222-4432-1
    .
  15. ^ De Simone, Carlo (2011). "La nuova Iscrizione 'Tirsenica' di Lemnos (Efestia, teatro): considerazioni generali". Rasenna: Journal of the Center for Etruscan Studies (in Italian). Vol. 3. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Amherst. pp. 1–34.
  16. ISBN 2-7283-0438-6
    .
  17. ^ Gras, Michel (2003). "Autour de Lemnos". In Marchesini, Simona; Poccetti, Paolo (eds.). Linguistica è storia: studi in onore di Carlo De Simone (in French). Pisa-Rome: Fabrizio Serra editore. pp. 135–144.
  18. ^ Drews, Robert (1992). "Herodotus 1.94, the Drought Ca. 1200 B.C., and the Origin of the Etruscans". Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte. Vol. 41. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 14–39.
  19. ^ Bagnasco Gianni, Giovanna. "Origine degli Etruschi". In Bartoloni, Gilda (ed.). Introduzione all'Etruscologia (in Italian). Milan: Ulrico Hoepli Editore. pp. 47–81.
  20. ^
    PMID 34559560
    .
  21. PMID 15125046
    . Seven Etruscan skulls were found in Corneto Tarquinia in the years 1881 and 1882 and were given as present to Rostock's anatomical collection in 1882. The origin of the Etruscans who were contemporary with the Celts is not yet clear; according to Herodotus they had emigrated from Lydia in Asia Minor to Italy. To fit the Etruscan skulls into an ethnological grid they were compared with skeletal remains of the first thousand years B.C.E. All skulls were found to be male; their age ranged from 20 to 60 years, with an average age of about thirty. A comparison of the median sagittal outlines of the Etruscan skulls and the contemporary Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from North Bavaria showed that the former were shorter and lower. Maximum skull length, minimum frontal breadth, ear bregma height, bizygomatical breadth and orbital breadth of the Etruscan skulls were statistically significantly less developed compared to Hallstatt-Celtics from North Bavaria. In comparison to other contemporary skeletal remains the Etruscan skulls had no similarities in common with Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from North Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg but rather with Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from Hallstatt in Austria. Compared to chronologically adjacent skeletal remains the Etruscan skulls did not show similarities with Early Bronze Age skulls from Moravia but with Latène-Celtic skulls from Manching in South Bavaria. Due to the similarities of the Etruscan skulls with some Celtic skulls from South Bavaria and Austria, it seems more likely that the Etruscans were original inhabitants of Etruria than immigrants
  22. ^ Hedlund, Stieg (2019-07-15), "Coda Etrusca. A forgotten culture's lasting influence", Deru Kugi, The continuity of magic from East to West, Part 3A – via medium.com
  23. ^ Hedlund, Stieg (2016-08-22), "Runes. Old Norse inscriptions, religion, and magic", Deru Kugi, Viking Esoterica, Part 1
  24. ^ Gippert, Jost, The Development of Old Germanic Alphabets, Uni Frankfurt, archived from the original on 2021-02-25, retrieved 2007-03-21.
  25. ISBN 978-0-19-517072-6
    . Etruscan origins lie in the distant past. Despite the claim by Herodotus, who wrote that Etruscans migrated to Italy from Lydia in the eastern Mediterranean, there is no material or linguistic evidence to support this. Etruscan material culture developed in an unbroken chain from Bronze Age antecedents. As for linguistic relationships, Lydian is an Indo-European language. Lemnian, which is attested by a few inscriptions discovered near Kamania on the island of Lemnos, was a dialect of Etruscan introduced to the island by commercial adventurers. Linguistic similarities connecting Etruscan with Raetic, a language spoken in the sub-Alpine regions of northeastern Italy, further militate against the idea of eastern origins.
  26. ^ Stifter 2010, p. 374.
  27. OL 24337090M
    .
  28. ^ Kirchhoff 1877, p. 168.
  29. ^ www.compart.com/en/unicode/scripts/Ital
  30. OL 19629507M
    .
  31. OL 1198388M. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help
    )
  32. ISBN 978-0-9747927-4-3
    .
  33. OL 7118142M
    .
  34. ^ Page 2005, p. 15.
  35. ^ Crawford 2021.
  36. ISBN 978-0-415-67308-2
    .
  37. ^
    ISBN 978-1-934078-49-5
    .
  38. ^
    PMID 23405165
    .
  39. ^
    PMID 23900768
    .
  40. PMID 15015132
    .
  41. PMID 15457405
    .
  42. PMID 18420593
    .
  43. ^
    S2CID 52161000
    .
  44. ^
    PMID 31699931
    . Interestingly, although Iron Age individuals were sampled from both Etruscan (n=3) and Latin (n=6) contexts, we did not detect any significant differences between the two groups with f4 statistics in the form of f4(RMPR_Etruscan, RMPR_Latin; test population, Onge), suggesting shared origins or extensive genetic exchange between them.
  45. ^ Antonio et al. 2019, p. 3.
  46. ^ Antonio et al. 2019, p. 2.
  47. ^ Antonio et al. 2019, Table 2 Sample Information, Rows 33-35.
  48. PMID 17357081
    .
  49. ^ Whitehead, Jane K. (2007). "DNA and Ethnic Origins: The Possible and the Improbable". Etruscan News (8). New York City: American section of the Institute for Etruscan and Italic Studies.
  50. PMID 27146119
    .
  51. S2CID 43501209
    . As a matter of fact, while the presence of J2a-M67* suggests contacts by sea with Anatolian people, in agreement with the Herodotus hypothesis of an external Anatolian source of Etruscans, the finding of the Central European lineage G2a-L497 at considerable frequency would rather support a Northern European origin of Etruscans. On the other hand, the high incidence of European R1b lineages cannot rule out the scenario of an autochthonous process of formation of the Etruscan civilization from the preceding Villanovan society, as first suggested by Dionysius of Halicarnassus; a detailed analysis of haplogroup R1b-U152 could prove very informative in this regard.
  52. PMID 23251386
    .
  53. ^
    PMID 23734255
    .
  54. PMID 25334030
    .
  55. ^
    PMID 29466330
    .
  56. PMID 29144465
    .
  57. S2CID 234471370
    . The Grotta La Sassa (National Cave Cadastre id: LA 2001) was discovered in 2015 during a survey of the Ausoni Mountains natural caves carried out by two speleological groups: Gruppo Grotte Castelli Romani and Speleo Club Roma. (...) At La Sassa, the two males LSC002/004 and LSC011 have an identical Ychr haplotype (J2a-M410/J2a7-Z2397; Table 1; Data S1B and S1F)
  58. PMID 27582244
    .
  59. PMID 31517044
    .
  60. ISBN 9780593229422
    . It's likely that Basque, Paleo-Sardinian, Minoan, and Etruscan developed on the continent in the course of the Neolithic Revolution. Sadly, the true diversity of the languages that once existed in Europe will never be known.
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