Zagros mountains became a natural barrier and borders between Rashidun Caliphate and Sassanid empire. Owing to continous raids of Persians in Iraq, Caliph umar ordered a whole scale invasion of Sassanid Persian empire in 642 which came to an end with complete conquest of Sassanid empire by mid 644
.
The quick conquest of Persia in series of well coordinated multi-pronged attacks, operated by Caliph Umar from
Madinah
several thousand miles from the battle fields in Persia, became his greatest triumph, marking his reputation among the greatest strategists and political genius of history.
Most
Muslim historians have long offered the idea that Persia, on the verge of the Arab invasion, was a society in decline and decay and thus it embraced the invading Arab armies with open arms. This view is not widely accepted however. Some authors have for example used mostly Arab sources to illustrate that "contrary to the claims of Muslim apologists, Iranians in fact fought long and hard against the invading Arabs."[1] This view further more holds that once politically conquered, the Persians began engaging in a culture war of resistance and succeeded in forcing their own ways on the Arabs.[2][3]
Persia Before the Conquest
Since the 1st century BC, the border between the
Lakhmids
. The Ghassanids and Lakhmids feuded constantly — which kept them occupied, but did not greatly affect the Byzantines or Persians.
In the 6th and 7th centuries, various factors destroyed the balance of power that had held for so many centuries.
The Byzantines regrouped and pushed back in 622 under Heraclius. Khusrau was defeated at the Battle of Nineveh in 627, and the Byzantines recaptured all of Syria and penetrated far into the Persian provinces of Mesopotamia. In 629, Khusrau's son agreed to peace, and the border between the two empires was once again the same as it was in 602.
Assassination of Khusrau II
Khosrau II
submitting to Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, from a plaque on a 12th century French cross
Khusrau II was assassinated in
Yazdegerd III
, was a grandson of Khusrau II and was said to be a mere child. However, no date of birth is known.
During Prophet Muhammad's Life
After the
Prophet Muhammad sent many letters to the princes, kings and chiefs of the various tribes and kingdoms of the time inviting them to convert to Islam. These letters were carried by ambassadors to Iran, Byzantium, Ethiopia, Egypt, Yemen, and Hira (Iraq) on the same day. [5] This assertion has been cast into scrutiny by some modern historians of Islam--notably Grimme and Caetani.[6] Particularly in dispute is the assertion that Khosrau II received a letter from Muhammad, as the Sassanid court ceremony was notoriously intricate, and it is unlikely that a letter from what at the time was a minor regional power would have reached the hands of the Shahanshah.[7]
With regards to Iran, Muslim histories further re-count that at the beginning of the seventh year of migration, Muhammad appointed one of his officers, Abdullah Huzafah Sahmi Qarashi, to carry his letter to
Khosrau II
inviting him to Islam:
"In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful.
From Muhammad, the Messenger of God, to the great Kisra of Iran. Peace be upon him, who seeks truth and expresses belief in God and in His Prophet and testifies that there is no god but God and that He has no partner, and who believes that Muhammad is His servant and Prophet. Under the Command of God, I invite you to Him. He has sent me for the guidance of all people so that I may warn them all of His wrath and may present the unbelievers with an ultimatum. Embrace Islam so that you may remain safe. And if you refuse to accept Islam, you will be responsible for the sins of the Magi."[8]
There are differing accounts of the reaction of
Khosrau II
. Nearly all assert that he destroyed the letter in anger; the variations concentrate on the extent and detail of his response.
Rise of the Caliphate
The
Arabic for the Wars of Apostasy). The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on March 18, 633
, with Arabia united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina.
Whether Abu Bakr intended a full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the
Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn Walid's conquest of Iraq.
After the Ridda Wars, a tribal chief of north eastern Arabia, Misnah ibn Haris, raided the Persian towns in Iraq. With the success of the raids, a considerable amount of booty was collected. Misnah ibn Haris went to Medina to inform Caliph Abu Bakr about his success and was appointed commander of his people, after which he begun to raid deeper into Iraq. Using the mobility of his
Abu Bakr started with the invasion of Iraq. The problems faced by Abu Bakr were that the
Al-Hirah the objective of Khalid, Abu Bakr sent reinforcements and ordered the tribal chiefs of north eastern Arabia, Misnah ibn Haris, Mazhur bin Adi, Harmala and Sulma to operate under the command of Khalid along with there men. In about third week of March 633 (first week of Muharram 12th Hijrah) Khalid set out from Al-Yamama with an army of 10,000.[9]
The tribal chiefs, with 2,000 warriors each, joined Khalid; Thus Khalid entered the Persian Empire with 18,000 troops.
After entering
Siege of Al-Anbar
.
Khalid then moved towards the south, and conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr after the
Battle of Ein ut Tamr
in the last week of July, 633 A.D. By now, almost the whole of Iraq (Euphrates region) was under Islamic control.
Khalid got a call of help from northern Arabia at Daumat-ul-Jandal, where another Muslim Arab general, Ayaz bin Ghanam, was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid went to Daumat-ul-jandal and defeated the rebels in the
Sassanid Persians, ByzantineRomans and Christian Arabs in the Battle of Firaz in December 633 A.D. This was the last battle in his conquest of Iraq. While Khalid was on his way to attack Qadissiyah, a key fort in the way to Persian Capital Ctesiphon, he received the letter of Caliph Abu Bakr and was sent to Roman front in Syria to assume the command of Muslim armies to conquer Roman Syria. [10]
Second invasion of Iraq (636)
Main article:
Battle of Qadisiyyah
According to will of Abu Bakr, Umar was to continue the conquest of Syria and Iraq. On north eastern borders of Empire, in
Eastern Roman Empire. Heraclius married his daughter (according to traditions, his grand daughter) to Yazdegerd III, an old Roman tradition to show once allaince. While Heraclius prepared for a major offense in Levant, meanwhile Yazdegerd ordered concentration of massive armies to pull back Muslims from Iraq for good, this was suppose to be a well coordinated attacks by both emperors, Heraclius in Levant and Yazdegerd in Iraq, to annihilate the power of their common enemy Caliph Umar.Fate, however had decided otherwise.[12]
Umar ordered his army to retreat to the bordering areas of Iraq near Arabian desert and started raising armies to for the Persian campaign. Iraq was to be conquer once again from the beginning. Armies were concentrated near
Saad ibn Abi Waqqas as commander for campaign in Iraq who left Madinah with his army in May636 and camped at Qadisiyyah in June
.
While Heraclius launched his offense in
Battle of Yarmouk in August636 three months before Qadisiyyah, ending the power of the Roman Emperor for good. Yazdegerd III nevertheless continued to execute his offensive plan and concentrated armies near his capital Ctesiphon.[13]
.
With situations at ease at Syrian front, on Umar's instruction negotiations were halt as an open signal to Persians for Battle. Saad defeated the powerful Persian army in the
Rostam Farrokhzād.Later Saad conquered Babylon, Koosie, Bahrahsher and Madein and the capital city of Persian Empire Ctesiphon fell in March637 after a siege of three months.[14]
Conquest of Iraq (636 - 638)
After the conquest of Ctesiphon, several detachments were immediately sent to west to capture Qarqeesia and
Byzantine empire. Still several strong Persian armies were still active in north-east of Ctesiphon at Jalula and north of Tigris at Tikrit and Mosul. The greatest threat of all was the Persian concentration at Jalula.[15]
After withdrawal from Ctesiphon, the Persian armies gathered at Jalaula north-east of
Battle of Qadisiyyah. As instructed by the Caliph Umar, Saad reported all the matter to Umar. Caliph decided to deal with Jalula first, his plan was first to clear the way to north before any decisive action against Tikrit and Mosul. Umar appointed Hashim ibn Uthba to the expedition of Jalula, and Abdullah ibn Mutaam to conquer Tikrit and Mosul. Some time in April637 A.D., Hashim marched at the head of 12,000 troops from Ctesiphon and defeated Persians at Battle of Jalula
, and laid siege of Jalula which lasted for seven months.
The situation in north was not less tense, the Persian governor of Mosul marched to Tikrit and which lay north-west of Jalaula, and the strategy Persians was that the contingents from Tikrit could be sent to the help of the Persian army at Jalaula. It was also believed that in the event of Persian defeat at Jalaula, the Persians could take a stand at Tikrit. After victory at Jalula, as per the instructions of umar, Abdullah ibn Mutaam marched against
Christian Arabs he next sent detachment to Mosul which surrendered on the usual terms of Jizya
. With victory at Jalula, and occupation of Takreet-Mosul region, Muslim rule in Iraq became unchallengeable.
After the conquest of Jalaula, a Muslim force under Qa'qa marched in pursuit of the Persians. The Persian army that escaped from Jalaula took its position at Khaniqeen fifteen miles from Jalaula on the road to Iran, under the command of General Mihran. Qa’qa defeated the Persian forces at
Hulwan. Qaqa moved to Hulwan and laid siege to the city which was captured in January 638.[16]
Qa’qa sought permission for operating deeper into Persian land, the main land Iran, but Caliph Umar didn’t approved the proposal and wrote a historic letter to Saad saying:
“
I wish that between the Suwad and the Persian hills there were walls which would prevent them from getting to us, and prevent us from getting to them.[17] The fertile Suwad is sufficient for us; and I prefer the safety of the Muslims to the spoils of war.
After the conquest of Khuzistan, the Caliph Umar wanted peace. They wanted to leave rest of Persia to the Persians. Umar said:
“
I wish there were a mountain of fire between us and the Persians, so that neither could they get to us, nor we to them.[20]
”
But the Persians thought differently. The pride of the imperial Persians had been hurt by the conquest of their land by the Arabs. They could not acquiesce in the occupation of their lands by the Arabs.[21]
After defeat of Persian forces at
Nihawand
for the last titanic struggle for the between the forces of Caliphate and Sassanid Persia. The forces assembled were about 60,000 and there commander was Mardan Shah.
Governor of
Battle of Nihawand in December641. Nouman died in action, and as per Umar’s instructions Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman became new commander in chief. After victory at Nihawand, Muslims captured the whole district of Hamadan after fable resistance by Persians.[23]
Conquest of Persian Empire (642 - 644)
After years of non-offensive policy Umar now adopted a new offensive policy.
Strategic planning for the conquest of Persian Empire
Umar decided to strike Persians immediately after their defeat at Nihawand to have psychological advantage on them. The main strategic problem before Umar was from where to start the offensive. There were three alternatives,
isolated and vulnerable.
In the last phase of this grand campaign Khurasan was to be attacked. This will be a last nail in the coffin of Sassanid dynasty. The plan was formulated and preparations were completed by January642. The success of plan depended upon how brilliantly Umar will co-ordinate these attacks from Madinah, about 1000 miles from the battle fields in Persia and upon skills and abilities of his field commanders. Umar would appoint his best field commanders to conquer the Sassanid Persian Empire and bring down his most formidable foe Emperor Yazdegerd III. The campaign saw a different pattern in command structure. Umar will not appoint a single field commander to campaign across the Persian lands, he would rather appoint several commanders each with his own objectives, and once the mission was over he will be acting as an ordinary sub-ordinate under the new field commander for the next mission. This was done by Umar to prevent any of his commanders to gain prominence and power that would in future, threaten his own authority, as in 638 he feared Khalid’s growing power and popularity and dismissed him from military services when he was at zenith of his military career, though at his dismissal, Khalid was more then able to rebel against Umar but never rebelled and made a soft corner in Umar’s heart. In 642 at the eve of conquest of Persia, Umar in order to give a moral boost to his troops decided to reinstall Khalid as new field commander against Persia.[29] Already well reputed as invincible military commander and conqueror of eastern provinces of Roman, Khalid’s presence in Persia would strike terror in Persian commanders, most of whom had already faced Khalid in 633 during his lightning conquest of Iraq.
Umar wanted a sure victory in early campaigns, which would increase confidence of his troops and meanwhile demoralize Persians. Unfortunately before Umar could issue orders of re-appointment, Khalid, residing in
forts, cities and troops in it. Then Umar will sent them a detail plan of how he want this region to be capture, only the tactical issues were left to the field commander to be tackled in accordance with the situation they are facing at their front.[30] Umar appointed the best available and well reputed commanders for the campaign.[31][32]
Conquest of central Persia (Isfahan & Tabaristan)
Choqa Zanbil
in Khuzestan.
The preparation and planning of conquest of Persian Empire was completed by early
Khurasan, and south east of it lay Sistan. Meanwhile Hamadan and Rayy had rebelled, Umar sent Naiem ibn Muqarrin, brother of late Nauman ibn Muqarrin, who was Muslim commander at Nihawand, to crush the rebellion and clear the western most boundaries of Isfahan. Naiem marched towards Hamadan from Isfahan, a bloody battle was fought and Hamadan was recaptured by Muslims, Naiem next moved to Rayy, here too Persians resisted and were defeated out side the fort, and city was recaptured by muslims.[34] Persian citizen sought for peace and agreed to pay Jizya. From Rayy, Naiem moved north towards Tabaristan, which laied south of Caspain Sea.[35] The ruler of Tabaristan surrendered and a peace treaty was signed according to which he will govern Tabaristan on behalf of Caliph and will pay annual Jizya. This was all done in April642. Naiem’s brother advanced further north and captured Qumas, Jarjan and Amol. He too signed a peace treaty with locals according to which they will accept the Muslim rule over area and will pay Jizya. With this campaign that ended some time 643, Muslims were master of Tabaristan. Further North West of the region laid Azerbaijan.[36]
Conquest of southern Persia (Fars)
With
Busra to Tawwaj, where Persian forces halt his way and were defeated in a quick battle thus fought. From Tawwaj Maja’a moved to Sabur, which was a fortified town.[37] The siege continued for few weeks after which city surrendered and usual terms of Jizya were enforced on it. With the conquest of Sabur Maja’a ibn Masood’s mission was over. Reinforcement came under the command of Usman ibn Abi al-Aas, who took over the command of Majaa’s army. Usman’s objective was ancient Persian capital city of Persepolis. Usman marched from Tawwaj to Shiraz, which surrendered peacefully. From Shiraz, Usman moved 35 miles north to Persepolis and laid siege to the historic Persian city. Siege lasted for several weeks before the city surrendered. Usman’s mission was over at Persepolis. Here again a change of command occurred. The mission to captured eastern districts of Fasa and Darab was given to Sariyah ibn Zuneim, who moved 80 miles south east to capture Fasa and then Darab, 60 miles from Fasa after resistance from local Persian garrisons. With this last successful expedition, conquest of Fars was completed by late 642. Further east of Fars laid Kerman and Sistan. A simultaneous campaign was launched against eastern (sistan and Balochistan), southern (Kerman and Makran) and north western (Azerbaijan) Persia.[38]
Conquest of south eastern Persia (Kerman & Makran)
Sassanid era horse head Found in Kerman
Expedition to
River Indus. Further east from Indus River laid Sindh.[39] Umar, after knowing that sindh was a poor and relatively barran land, disapproved Suhail’s proposal to cross Indus River.[40] For the time being, Umar declared the Indus River, a natural barrier, to be the eastern most frontier of his domain. This campaign came to an end in mid 644.[41]
Conquest of eastern Persia (Sistan)
Busra, and passing through Fars and taking under his command the Muslim troops already present in fars entered Sistan. No resistance was offered and cities surrendered. Asim reached Zaranj, 250 miles from Kandahar, a small town in present day southern Afghanistan, then a bustling capital of Sistan. Asim laid siege to the city which lasted several months. A pitch battle was fought out side the city and Persians were defeated and routed. With the surrender of Zaranj, Sistan submitted to Muslim rule. Further east of sistan was northern Sindh which was beyond the scope of the mission assigned to Asim. Caliph for the time bring, didn’t approved of any incursion in the land east of Persian Empire and ordered his men to consolidate power in newly conquered land.[42]
Conquest of Azerbaijan
Sassanian fortress in Derbent, it fall to Muslims in 643.
Conquest of
Bukair ibn Abdullah and Utba ibn Farqad succeeded him. They were sent to carry out a two prong attack against Azerbaijan. Bukair was to march north along western coast of Caspian Sea while Uthba will march direct in the heart of Azerbaijan. On his way north Bukair was halt by a large Persian force under Isandir. A pitch battle was fought and Isandir was defeated and captured. Isandir in return of safety of his life agreed to surrender his estates in Azerbaijan and persuade others for submission to the Muslim rule.[45] Uthba ibn Farqad defeated Bahram, brother of Isandir. He too sought for peace. A pact was drawn according to which Azerbaijan was surrendered to Caliph Umar on usual terms of paying annual Jizya. The espedition commenced some time in late 643.[46]
Conquest of Armenia
View of Tbilisi, fall to Rashidun Caliphate in 644.
Khurasan in late 643 and at the same time an expedition was launched against Armenia.[47]
Tiflis and region up to eastern coast of Black Sea. Abdulrehman marched north to Caucasus mountain and subdued the tribes. Hudheifa marched south west to the mountainous region and subdued the local tribes. The advance in Armenia came to an end with the death of Caliph umar in November 644. By then almost whole of Caucasus was captured.[48]
Conquest of Khurasan
Naqsh-e Rustam
of Iranian emperor Shapur I (on horseback) capturing Roman emperor Valerian (kneeing) and Philip the Arab (standing)
Sassanids
had ceased to exist. Ahnaf returned to to Marv and sent a detail report of operations to Umar and a historic letter that Umar was anxiously waiting for, subject of which was that Persian Empire has been conquered and a permission was sought whether Oxus should be crossed to invade Transoxiana or not. Umar ordered Ahnaf to consolidate his power south of Oxus.
Persian rebellion
Caliph Umar was assassinated in
Baluchistan and Caucasus. The main rebellion was in the Persian provinces of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Fars, Sistan ( in 649), Tabaristan, Khorasan (651), and Makran (650).[53]
End of the Sassanid Dynasty
Battle of Oxus river
was unable to raise another army and became a hunted fugitive.
Following the battle he fled to
Abdullah ibn Aamir crushed the rebellion and defeated Yazdegerd's forces. He fled from one district to another until a local miller killed him for his purse at Merv in 651.[55]
For many decades to come, this was the easternmost limit of complete Muslim rule.
Persia under Muslim rule
See also:
Islamization in Iran
Under Umar and his immediate successors, the Arab conquerors attempted to maintain their political and cultural cohesion despite the attractions of the civilizations they had conquered. The Arabs initially settle in the garrison towns rather than on scattered estates.[56] The new non-Muslim subjects, or dhimmi, were to pay a special tax, the jizya or poll tax, which was calculated per individual at varying rates, usually two dirhams for able bodied men of military age, in return for their exemption from military services. Women and Children were exempted from Jizya. [57].
Mass conversions were neither desired nor allowed, at least in the first few centuries of Arab rule
Christians, were to be tolerated so long as they submitted to Muslim rule. Sassanid state religion was Zoroastrianism
and its worshipers were declared people of the book, and were entitled to the same tolerance. While Persian sources claim destruction of Zoroastrian shrines and prohibition of Zoroastrian worship, Muslim sources didn't mentioned of any such incident with the people who accepted their rule peacefully. The Zoroastrian temples, were converted to Mosques and often were destroyed in the cities which fall to Muslims after relentless resistance. Cities that submitted to Muslim rule through peace negotiation with Muslims prior, during or after the siege or conquest, were given peace on liberal terms as per Caliph Umar's instructions, allowing the inhabitants to practice any religion they wish and their holy sites were given protected until they pay Jizya annually.
Umar, knew the fact that his grip over Persians will never be firm until he conquers their trust. Therefore according to his instruction citizens were given peace, whether the city fall by force or through peaceful negotiation. Only Jizya, which was an average 2 dirham per adult man, was imposed on them, which was far lower then the taxes imposed by Sassanid rulers on peasant class during last troubled years of their rule, thus Jizya simply replaced those, often unbearable, taxes. During Rashidun Caliphate, the official language of Persia remained Persian. The Diwan of Persians were written in Persian language, similarly the official languages of Syria and Egypt remained Greek and Coptic.
However, During the
Buddhists and other groups. However, there was a slow but steady movement of the population toward Islam. The nobility and city-dwellers were the first to convert, Islam spread more slowly among the peasantry and the dihqans, or landed gentry. By the late 10th century, the majority of Persians had become Muslim, at least nominally. Most Persian Muslims were Sunni Muslims. Though Iran is known today as a stronghold of the Shi'a Muslim faith, it did not become so until much later around the 15th century. The Iranian Muslims projected many of their own Persian moral and ethical values that predates Islam into the religion, while recognizing Islam as their religion and the prophet's son in law, Ali
"Arab Muslims conquests have been variously seen in Iran: by some as a blessing, the advent of the true faith, the end of the age of ignorance and heathenism; by others as a humiliating national defeat, the conquest and subjugation of the country by foreign invaders. Both perceptions are of course valid, depending on one's angle of vision… Iran was indeed Islamized, but it was not Arabized. Persians remained Persians. And after an interval of silence, Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam, eventually adding a new element even to Islam itself. Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna." [61]
.jpg)
