Kingdom of Georgia
Kingdom of Georgia საქართველოს სამეფო sakartvelos samepo | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
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1008–1490 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Flags of Georgia of the 14th–15th centuries according to Dulcert, the Pizzigano brothers and others[3]
Vakhushti's Atlas (c.1745)Coat of arms of the "Kingdom of Georgia under Khan" according to Grünenberg Wappenbuch (1480)[1][2] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Capital | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Common languages | Feudal monarchy | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
King | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1008–1014 (first) | Bagrat III | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1446–1465 (last) | George VIII | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Legislature | 1463 1490[a] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Currency | Various Byzantine and Sassanian coins were minted until the 12th century. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
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1the full title of the Georgian monarchs after 1124 was " Possessor of Shirvan ." |
Part of a series on the |
History of Georgia |
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The Kingdom of Georgia (
.Lasting for several centuries, the kingdom fell to the
Background
Early Georgian kingdoms were reduced to feudal regions over the course of the Roman–Persian wars. The area then fell under the control of the early Muslim conquests of the 7th century.
Iberian princes from the
In 736,
History
Unification of the Georgian State
During the 10th century, David III of Tao invaded the Duchy of Kartli, giving it to his adopted son, who would later be known as Bagrat III of Georgia, with his biological father, Gurgen of Iberia, as regent. In 994, Gurgen was crowned King of the Iberians. In 975, supported by the Duke of Kartli Ivane Marushisdze and David, Bagrat claimed the throne of Kartli,[12]: 108 becoming King of the Kartlians. During this time, the Kingdom of Abkhazia in what is today northeastern Georgia was under the rule of Theodosius the Blind, who did away with Abkhazian traditions. In 978, the Abkhazian aristocracy, dissatisfied with the rule of Theodosius, performed a coup d'état and invited Bagrat to claim the throne of Abkhazia.[13]: 67–68
Gurgen died in 1008, leaving his throne for Bagrat, allowing Bagrat to become the first king of a unified Abkhazia and Iberia. In his early reign, Bagrat pressed a claim to the kingdom of
Bagrat's reign secured a victory for the Bagratids of Georgia, ending the power-struggles that had plagued the region for centuries. Bagrat had a peaceful foreign policy, successfully avoiding conflicts with the Byzantines and nearby Muslim realms, even though some of David's territory, such as Tao and Tbilisi, remained in Byzantine and Arab control, respectively.
War and peace with Byzantium
George I's reign was known primarily for its war against the Byzantines. This war had its roots in the 990s, when David III, after losing a rebellion against the Byzantine Emperor Basil II, agreed to cede his lands in Tao to the emperor upon his death. George I, in an attempt to take back the Kuropalates' land, occupied Tao starting from 1015 or 1016, during a Byzantine war with the Bulgarian Empire. When Bulgaria was dealt with in 1021, Basil II turned his attention to Georgia, leading to a two-year-long war and an eventual Byzantine victory. George, as a result, had to abandon his claims in Tao and surrender some of his southwestern lands, which were eventually made into the theme of Iberia. George's son, who would eventually become Bagrat IV, was also given to Basil as a hostage.
Bagrat IV spent the next three years in Constantinople, being released in 1025. George I's death in 1027 saw him succeeded by the 8-year-old Bagrat. By the time Bagrat ascended to the throne, the Bagratids' unification drive had gained much momentum. Many of the Georgian lands, such as Tao, Tbilisi, Kakheti and Hereti, were either under the rule of foreign empires or of independent kings. The loyalty of Georgian nobles was also questionable. Bagrat IV's childhood saw the regency increase the influence of the nobility, something which he tried to stop when he assumed his full powers.
Great Turkish Invasion
In the later half of the 11th century, the
In 1065 the Seljuk sultan Alp Arslan attacked Kartli, taking Tbilisi and building a mosque.[15] During the internecine conflict between Seljuk heirs, George II of Georgia defeated a Seljuk governor, Sarang of Ganja, at the Battle of Partskhisi in 1074.[16] In 1076, the Seljuk sultan Malik Shah I attacked again. Georgia eventually submitted to Malik Shah, paying an annual tribute in order to have peace.
Georgian Reconquista
David IV
George II ceded the crown to his 16-year-old son David IV in 1089. Under the tutelage of his court minister, George of Chqondidi, David IV suppressed the feudal lords and centralized the power. In 1089–1100, he organized military action to destroy Seljuk troops, beginning the resettlement of occupied regions. In 1099, David IV refused to pay tribute to the Seljuqs.
By 1104, the local king of the eastern Georgia provide of Kakheti, Aghsartan II, was captured by David IV's supporters, reuniting the area. The following year, David IV defeated a Seljuk force in the Battle of Ertsukhi. Over the course of 1110 to 1118, David IV captured the fortresses of Samshvilde, Rustavi, Gishi, and Lori.
Starting in 1118 through 1120, David IV began major military reforms, including the resettlement of several thousand Kipchaks.[17] In exchange, each Kipchak family provided David IV with a soldier, allowing him to establish a standing army. This alliance was aided by David IV's earlier marriage to the Khan's daughter.
Entering 1120, David IV became more expansionist. He invaded the neighbouring
In 1123, David IV liberated Dmanisi, the last Seljuk stronghold in southern Georgia. By 1124, Shirvan was captured along with the Armenian city of Ani. This expanded the kingdom's borders to the Araxes basin.
David IV founded the Gelati Academy, known at the time as "a new Hellas" and "a second Athos".[19] David also composed the Hymns of Repentance, eight free-verse psalms.[20]
Reign of Demetrius I and George III
The kingdom continued to flourish under
In 1130, Demetrius revealed a plot of nobles, probably involving the king's half-brother
Fadl's successor, Fakr al-Din Shaddad, a Shaddadid emir of Ani asked for Saltuk's daughter's hand, however Saltuk refused him. This caused a deep hatred in Shaddad towards Saltuk. In 1154 he planned a plot and formed a secret alliance with the Demetrius I. While a Georgian army waited in ambush, he offered tribute to Saltukids, ruler of Erzerum and asked the latter to accept him as a vassal. In 1153–1154, Emir Saltuk II marched on Ani, but Shaddad informed his suzerain, the King of Georgia, of this. Demetrius marched to Ani, defeated and captured the emir. At the request of neighbouring Muslim rulers and released him for a ransom of 100,000 dinars, paid by Saltuk's sons in law and Saltuk swore not to fight against the Georgians he returned home.[24]
Although his reign saw a disruptive family conflict related to royal succession, Georgia remained a centralized power with a strong military.[22][25] A talented poet, Demetrius also continued his father's contributions to Georgia's religious polyphony. The most famous of his hymns is Thou Art a Vineyard.
Demetrius was succeeded by his son
Golden age
The unified monarchy maintained its precarious independence
With the decline of Byzantine power and the dissolution of the Great Seljuk Empire, Georgia became one of the pre-eminent nations of the region, stretching, at its largest extent, from present-day Southern Russia to Northern Iran, and westwards into Anatolia. The Kingdom of Georgia brought about the Georgian Golden Age, which describes a historical period in the High Middle Ages, spanning from roughly the late 11th to 13th centuries, when the kingdom reached the zenith of its power and development. The period saw the flourishing of medieval Georgian architecture, painting and poetry, which was frequently expressed in the development of ecclesiastic art, as well as the creation of first major works of secular literature. It was a period of military, political, economical and cultural progress. It also included the so-called Georgian Renaissance (also called Eastern Renaissance[30]), during which various human activities, forms of craftsmanship and art, such as literature, philosophy and architecture thrived in the kingdom.[31]
King Tamar's reign
Capital
Georgian held cities and fortresses
Conquered cities and fortresses
Major battles
Tamar not only shielded much of her Empire from further Turkish invasions but successfully pacified internal tensions, including a coup organized by her
Early in the 1190s, the Georgian government began to interfere in the affairs of the Eldiguzids and of the Shirvanshahs, aiding rivaling local princes and reducing Shirvan to a tributary state. The Eldiguzid atabeg Abu Bakr attempted to stem the Georgian advance, but suffered a defeat at the hands of David Soslan at the Battle of Shamkor and lost his capital to a Georgian protégé in 1195. Although Abu Bakr was able to resume his reign a year later, the Eldiguzids were only barely able to contain further Georgian forays.[32][33]
The question of liberation of Armenia remained of prime importance in Georgia's foreign policy. Tamar's armies led by two Christianised
Alarmed by the Georgian successes,
Among the remarkable events of Tamar's reign was the foundation of the Empire of Trebizond on the Black Sea in 1204. This state was established in the northeast of the crumbling Byzantine Empire with the help of the Georgian armies, which supported Alexios I of Trebizond and his brother, David Komnenos, both of whom were Tamar's relatives.[40] Alexios and David were fugitive Byzantine princes raised at the Georgian court. Tamar's Pontic endeavor can also be explained by her desire to take advantage of the Western European Fourth Crusade against Constantinople to set up a friendly state in Georgia's immediate southwestern neighborhood, as well as by the dynastic solidarity to the dispossessed Comnenoi.[41][42]
As a retribution for the attack on Georgian-controlled city of Ani, where 12,000 Christians were massacred in 1208, Georgia's Tamar the Great invaded and conquered the cities of Tabriz, Ardabil, Khoy, Qazvin[44] and others along the way to Gorgan[45][46] in northeast Persia.[47]
The country's power had grown to such extent that in the later years of Tamar's rule, the Kingdom was primarily concerned with the protection of the Georgian monastic centers in the Holy Land, eight of which were listed in Jerusalem.[48] Saladin's biographer Bahā' ad-Dīn ibn Šaddād reports that, after the Ayyubid conquest of Jerusalem in 1187, Tamar sent envoys to the sultan to request that the confiscated possessions of the Georgian monasteries in Jerusalem be returned. Saladin's response is not recorded, but the queen's efforts seem to have been successful.[49] Ibn Šaddād furthermore claims that Tamar outbid the Byzantine emperor in her efforts to obtain the relics of the True Cross, offering 200,000 gold pieces to Saladin who had taken the relics as booty at the battle of Hattin – to no avail, however.[50]
There is also in the East another Christian people, who are very warlike and valiant in battle, being strong in body and powerful in the countless numbers of their warriors...Being entirely surrounded by infidel nations...these men are called Georgians, because they especially revere and worship St. George...Whenever they come on pilgrimage to the
Saracensdare in no wise molest them...
Nomadic invasions
Reign of George IV and Rusudan
Mongol yoke
George V the Brilliant
In 1334,
Black Death
One of the primary reasons of Georgian political and military decline was the
Timurid invasions
Turkmen invasions
After the
As a result of foreign and internal struggles unified Kingdom of Georgia ceased to exist after 1466 and was subdivided into several political units. Kara Koyunlu tribal confederation was destroyed by Aq Qoyunlu, their kin tribesmen who formed another confederation, which was similar in many ways to its predecessor. Aq Qoyunlu Turkomans naturally took advantage of the Georgian fragmentation. Georgia was at least twice attacked by Uzun Hasan, the prince of the Aq Qoyunlu in 1466, 1472 and possibly 1476–7. Bagrat VI of Georgia, temporary ruler of most of Georgia at the time, had to make peace with the invaders, by abandoning Tbilisi to the enemy. It was only after Uzun Hasan's death (1478) when the Georgians were able to recover their capital. In the winter of 1488, the Ak Koyunlu Turkomans led by Halil Bey attacked Georgia's capital Tbilisi, and took the city after a long-lasted siege in February 1489. Alexander II of Imereti, another pretender to the throne, took advantage of the Aq Qoyunlu Turkoman invasion of Kartli, and seized control of Imereti. Occupation of the capital did not last long and Constantine II of Georgia was able to repel them, but it was still costly to Georgians. Ismail I, founder of the Safavid dynasty, formed an alliance with the Georgians in 1502 and decisively defeated Aq Qoyunlu in the same year, destroying their state and marking the end of their invasions.
Final disintegration
Government and society
Administration
This section may contain information not important or relevant to the article's subject. |
Numismatics
Bagrat IV's (r.1027 – 1072) coins featured Greek inscriptions alongside Georgian.[b][61] By the reigns of Demetrius I (r.1125-1154), Giorgi III (r.1156–1184), David IV (r.1089–1125), and T'amar (r.1184 – 1213), coins were minted bearing the titles "malik al-mulūk" and "malikat al-malikāt", respectively.[7] According to Brosset, Georgia used Arabic as a lingua franca because of the importance of trade relations with the Islamic world.[7] Karst supports this stating that the bilingual coins served as an official and visible symbol of the cordial relationship between Georgia and the Caliphate.[c][7]
Demetrius I's (r.1125-1154) reign exclusively struck copper coins.[63] There are several recognized patterns in his coinage, which eschewed Byzantine conventions in favor of a hybrid Georgian-Muslim style.[63] The reverse of one version includes the name of the Caliph of Baghdad due to political expediency, while the obverse features the king's initial "D" in Georgian ecclesiastical majuscule together with his title "Sword of the Messiah" in Arabic.[63] Copper coins belonging to George IV (r.1213-1223) carry the year 1210 (430 in the K'oronikon), indicating that during this time his mother gave George a significant amount of royal authority.[64] The reverse of the coin is similar to Tamar's irregular issue, but in the center is an inscription in ecclesiastical majuscules that reads "GI DZE T'MRSI," which is an acronym for "Giorgi, son of T'amar."[63] The Arabic inscription on the back illustrates George's name and titles.[63]
It is significant that only copper was minted in Georgia beginning under the rule of Demetrius I.[65] This was the outcome of the silver famine that was raging over the Near East during this time.[65] It was not until the thirteenth century that this famine was ended.[66] Large amounts of silver were brought to the Middle East after the Mongol invasion of China in 1213, where it was captured and circulated by the trading public.[66] When the silver supply in Georgia was restored, Queen Rusudan(r.1223–1245) was able to modify the coinage by issuing her renowned "Botinats" in 1230.[66] The Arabic legend of this series frequently transliterates the Queen's name as "Rusūdān", whereas her copper coins have "Rūsudān" on the description of Rusudan's silver coin from 1230.[67]
Georgian coins showed signs of foreign influence when the kingdom of Georgia came under the Mongol rule in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, combining inscriptions in Georgian, Arabic, and Persian.[8] During the regency of Töregene Khatun(r.1244-1245), silver dirhems minted at Tiblisi stated "The Great Mongol Alush (Ulush) Bek”, which has been intrepretated to "[Money issued by] the Great Mongol Viceroy (Supreme Commander)."[68] During this same time, the son of Rusudan, David VI (r.1245-1259), was minting copper coins at Dmanisi, with production moving to Tbilisi by 1247.[69] David VI's obverse consisted of, the king on a horse(left side); below are some bushes and dark objects that could be hounds, while the reverse has inscriptions in Persian.[70] David VI ruled with his cousin David VII (r.1248–1259) whose coins were minted in Tbilisi starting in 1252, which state, "David, son of Giorgi, Bagrationi, vassal of the Mongol Great Khan Mangu".[71] Both cousins issued a joint silver coin of Byzantine type in which the reverse features the Holy Virgin, while the obverse features the kings standing together.[71] These coins, which are quite rare, were most likely produced at Kutaisi in 1261-62, following David VII's rebellion, flight from the Mongol lords, and his subsequent shelter in Western Georgia with David VI.[71]
Religion and culture
Between the 11th and the early 13th centuries, Georgia experienced a political, economical and cultural golden age, as the Bagrationi dynasty managed to unite western and eastern halves of the country into a single kingdom. To accomplish that goal, kings relied much on the prestige of the Church, and enrolled its political support by giving it many economical advantages, immunity from taxes and large appanages. At the same time, the kings, most notably David the Builder (1089–1125), used state power to interfere in church affairs. Notably, he summoned the 1103 council of Ruisi-Urbnisi, which condemned Armenian Miaphysitism in stronger terms than ever before, and gave unprecedented power, second only to the Patriarch, to his friend and advisor George of Chqondidi. For the following centuries, the Church would remain a crucial feudal institution, whose economical and political power would always be at least equal to that of the main noble families.
During the Middle Ages, Christianity was the central element of Georgian culture. Specific forms of art were developed in Georgia for religious purposes. Among them, calligraphy, polyphonic church singing, cloisonné enamel icons, such as the Khakhuli triptych, and the "Georgian cross-dome style" of architecture, which characterizes most medieval Georgian churches. The most celebrated examples of Georgian religious architecture of the time include the Gelati Monastery and Bagrati Cathedral in Kutaisi, the Ikalto Monastery complex and Academy, and the Svetitskhoveli Cathedral in Mtskheta.
Outstanding Georgian representatives of Christian culture include
Tamar's reign also marked the continuation of artistic development in the country commenced by her predecessors. While her contemporary Georgian chronicles continued to enshrine Christian morality, the religious theme started to lose its earlier dominant position to the highly original secular literature. This trend culminated in an epic written by Georgia's national poet Rustaveli – The Knight in the Panther's Skin (Vepkhistq'aosani). Revered in Georgia as the greatest achievement of native literature, the poem celebrates the Medieval humanistic ideals of chivalry, friendship and courtly love.
Missionary activities
From the 10th century, Georgians had started to play a significant role in preaching Christianity in the mountains of the Caucasus. "Wherever the missions of the patriarchs of Constantinople, Rome, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem failed, the
Legacy
Artistic inheritance
-
Golden Theotokos of Khobi Monastery, with some precious stones taken by the communists
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Detail of the Khakhuli Triptych
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Atskuri Triptych
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Georgian tondo commemorating Roman martyr Mammes of Caesarea
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David IV's processional cross
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Crucifixion from Mestia
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Fresco from Ubisi, Georgia
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The Last Supper of Ubisi
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Annunciation of Ubisi
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Walls of the Khobi Monastery showing strong Roman influence
-
Despite setbacks at the hands of Mongols, Georgia continued to produce cultural landmarks, such as these frescoes at Ubisi by Damiane - one of Georgia's distinctive medieval artists.
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Golden cross of Queen Tamar, composed ofpearls
See also
- List of the Kings of Georgia
- Georgian monarchs family tree
- Monarchism in Georgia
- Style of the Georgian sovereign
- List of historical states of Georgia
Notes
- royal councilthat recognized the fragmentation of the Kingdom of Georgia into separate kingdoms and principalities."
- ^ "...Islam was now only a relict on Georgian soil: Bagrat IV’s coins have the Virgin and a Greek inscription on the obverse, with Georgian initials on the reverse, but no Arabic..."[61]
- ^ "Sometimes the Caliph's name was included as a gesture of conciliation to Georgia's many Muslim subjects, as well as to the inhabitants of neighbouring states, among whom economic considerations made it desirable that Georgia's coinage should circulate as widely as possible.[62]
References
- ^ "Zwölf Königswappen, aus: Grünenberg, Konrad: Grünenberg, Konrad:Das Wappenbuch Conrads von Grünenberg, Ritters und Bürgers zu Constanz - BSB Cgm 145 ( um 1480) - Digitalisiertes Buch aus dem urheberrechtsfreien Bestand der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek München [Deutschland] 2007-2021 Bildähnlichkeitssuche". bildsuche.digitale-sammlungen.de. Archived from the original on 2020-01-09. Retrieved 2019-09-11.
- ^ Oldest Georgian Arms Archived 2019-01-12 at the Wayback Machine Zachary Kiknadze, pp.6–7, State Council of Heraldry, 2014
- ^ "Heraldica - რუკები". heraldry.ge. Archived from the original on 2019-08-01. Retrieved 2019-12-05.
- ^ Graham Speake. Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition, Taylor & Francis: 2021 "...Laz and Greeks appear to have survived in harmony both in Trebizond and in the multi-ethnic kingdom of the Bagrationis..." [1]
- ^ Stephen H. Rapp. "Languages and Cultures of Eastern Christianity", Taylor & Francis, 2018 "...Armenians partially belonged to the kingdom of Georgia..."[2]
- ^ a b Rayfield 2013, p. 111.
- ^ a b c d Vacca 2017, p. 148.
- ^ a b Mikaberidze 2007, p. 242.
- (1996) Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia DIANE Publishing pp. 157-158-160-182
- from the original on 2021-02-04. Retrieved 2021-01-30.
(...) he courageously fought off countless enemies as he reinforced Georgian unity and assembled a pan-Caucasian empire, hence his sobriquet Aġmašenebeli (the builder) (...) The height of the pan-Caucasian rule of the Georgian Bagratids and of the transregional Georgian monastic network is habitually described as Georgia's Golden Age. (...) Internal and external tensions mounted, and the pan-Caucasian empire of the Georgian Bagratids shrank under T'amar's children Giorgi IV Laša (r. 1213–23 C.E.) and Rusudan (r. 1223–45 C.E.).
- ISBN 978-1-4443-3361-9. Archivedfrom the original on 12 November 2012. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
- ^ Lang, David Marshall. The Georgians, Ancient Peoples and Places.
- ^ Natho, Kadir I. Circassian History.
- ^ Toumanoff, Cyril (1967). Studies in Christian Caucasian History, p. 498. Georgetown University Press.
- ^ Minorsky 1953, p. 65.
- ^ Mikaberidze 2019, p. 468.
- ^ Norris 2009, p. 26.
- ^ (in Georgian) Javakhishvili, Ivane (1982), k'art'veli eris istoria (The History of the Georgian Nation), vol. 2, pp. 184–187. Tbilisi State University Press.
- ^ Chatzidakis, Nano. Byzantine Mosaics, Volume 7. Athens, Greece: Ekdotike Athenon, 1994, p.22
- ISBN 0-06-270007-3.
- ^ Rayfield 2013, pp. 98–99.
- ^ a b Rayfield 2013, p. 100.
- ISBN 978-1-4422-4146-6.
- ^ Prof. Yaşar Yüce-Prof. Ali Sevim: Türkiye tarihi Cilt I, AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, İstanbul, 1991, p. 149–150.
- ISBN 978-1-4422-4146-6.
- ^ Gocha Japaridze, Georgia and the Islamic world of the Near East in the first third of the XII-XIII centuries, Tbilisi, 1995, p.102–105.
- OCLC 1104451936.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link - ^ საქართველოს ისტორიის ნარკვევები, ტ. 3, თბ., 1979, გვ. 270–274
- ^ Eastmond 1998, p. 71.
- ISBN 978-0-85745-985-5. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-01-07. Retrieved 2019-08-29.
- ISBN 978-94-015-8943-7. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-01-02. Retrieved 2019-08-29.
- ^ Luther, Kenneth Allin. "Atābākan-e Adārbāyĵān", in: Encyclopædia Iranica (Online edition). Retrieved on 2006-06-26.
- ^ Lordkipanidze & Hewitt 1987, p. 148.
- ^ Kuehn 2011, p. 28.
- ^ Eastmond 1998, p. 121; Lordkipanidze & Hewitt 1987, pp. 150–151.
- ^ Lordkipanidze & Hewitt 1987, p. 150.
- ^ Humphreys, 1977 p. 131.
- ^ Lordkipanidze & Hewitt 1987, p. 154.
- ^ Humphreys 1977, pp. 130–131.
- Comnenoi's grandmother on their father's side, as it has been conjectured by Cyril Toumanoff(1940).
- ^ Eastmond 1998, pp. 153–154.
- ^ *Vasiliev, A. A. (1935). Byzance et les Arabes, Tome I: La Dynastie d'Amorium (820–867) (in French). French ed.: Henri Grégoire, Marius Canard. Brussels, Belgium: Éditions de l'Institut de Philologie et d'Histoire Orientales. pp. 15–19. Archived from the original on 2016-06-24. Retrieved 2021-09-10.
- ISBN 9781316711774.
- ISBN 978-1-59884-336-1. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-09-03. Retrieved 2019-08-29.
- ISBN 978-0-7100-9090-4. Archivedfrom the original on 2019-12-21. Retrieved 2019-08-29.
- ^ Brosset, Marie-Felicite (1858). Histoire de la Géorgie depuis l'Antiquité jusqu'au XIXe siècle. France: imprimerie de l'Académie Impériale des sciences. pp. 468–472.
- ISBN 978-1-84162-402-0. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-09-03. Retrieved 2019-08-29.
- ^ Eastmond 1998, p. 122.
- ^ Pahlitzsch, Johannes, "Georgians and Greeks in Jerusalem (1099–1310)", in Ciggaar & Herman (1996), pp. 38–39.
- ^ Eastmond 1998, pp. 122–123.
- ^ David Marshall Land. The Lives and Legends of the Georgian Saints. London: Allen & Unwin, 1976, p. 11
- ^ Ta'rfkh-i Shaikh Uwais (History of Shaikh Uwais), trans. and ed. J. B. van Loon, The Hague, 1954, 56–58.
- ^ Ivane Javakhishvili, The History of the Georgian Nation, vol. 3, Tbilisi, 2012, p.79
- ^ W. Barthold, ' Die persische Inschrift an der Mauer der Manucehr-Moschee zu Ani ', trans. and edit. W. Hinz, ZDMG, Bd. 101, 1951, 246;
- ^ Vasil Kiknadze, Georgia in the XIV century, Tbilisi, 1989, p.105
- ^ Ivane Javakhishvili, The History of the Georgian Nation, vol. 3, Tbilisi, 2012, p.84
- ^ Vazha Kiknadze, European sources of Georgian history, Tbilisi, 1983, p.159
- ^ D. Kldiashvili, History of the Georgian Heraldry, Parlamentis utskebani, 1997, p. 35.
- ISBN 978-1-4381-1913-7. Archivedfrom the original on 2017-03-24. Retrieved 2019-08-29.
- Toumanoff, Cyril(1949–51). The Fifteenth-Century Bagratids and the Institution of Collegial Sovereignty in Georgia. Traditio 7: 174, 176–177.
- ^ a b Rayfield 2013, p. 78.
- ^ Lang 1955, p. 2.
- ^ a b c d e Lang 1955, p. 20.
- ^ Lang 1955, p. 27.
- ^ a b Lang 1955, p. 21.
- ^ a b c Lang 1955, p. 22.
- ^ Lang 1955, p. 33.
- ^ Lang 1955, p. 36.
- ^ Lang 1955, p. 36-37.
- ^ Lang 1955, p. 37-38.
- ^ a b c Lang 1955, p. 39.
Bibliography
- Eastmond, Antony (1998). Royal Imagery in Medieval Georgia. University Park, Pennsylvania, USA: ISBN 0-271-01628-0.
- Lang, David M. (1955). Studies in the Numismatic History of Georgia in Transcaucasia. The American Numismatic Society.
- Mikaberidze, Alexander (2019). "Georgian-Seljuk Wars (11th-13th centuries)". In Tucker, Spencer C. (ed.). Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century. Vol. II:G-N. ABC-CLIO. pp. 467–468.
- Minorsky, V. (1953). Studies in Caucasian History I. New Light on the Shaddadids of Ganja II. The Shaddadids of Ani III. Prehistory of Saladin. Cambridge University Press.
- Lordkipanidze, Mariam Davydovna; Hewitt, George B. (1987). Georgia in the XI–XII Centuries. Tbilisi: Ganatleba Publishers.
- Kuehn, Sara (2011). The Dragon in Medieval East Christian and Islamic Art. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV. ISBN 978-90-04-18663-7.
- Humphreys, R. Stephen (1977). From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193–1260. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-87395-263-4.
- Mikaberidze, Alexander, ed. (2007). "Currency". Historical Dictionary of Georgia. The Scarecrow Press.
- Norris, Harry (2009). Islam in the Baltic: Europe's Early Muslim Community. I.B. Tauris.
- Rayfield, Donald (2013). Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-78023-070-2.
- Vacca, Alison (2017). Non-Muslim Provinces under Early Islam: Islamic Rule and Iranian Legitimacy in Armenia and Caucasian Albania. Cambridge University Press.
External links
- Media related to Kingdom of Georgia at Wikimedia Commons