User:MurrayScience/Anthropogenic greenhouse gases
Lead
A greenhouse gas (sometimes abbreviated GHG) is a
Human activities since the beginning of the
At current emission rates, temperatures could increase by 2 °C (3.6°F), which the United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) designated as the upper limit to avoid "dangerous" levels, by 2036.[14]
Anthropogenic greenhouse gases
Since the
The major anthropogenic greenhouse gases are
Experts have identified the need for human civilization to cease emissions of greenhouse gases in order to stop the rise in global temperature. As of 2020, global average surface temperatures have risen approximately 1.0°C relative to the pre-industrial average. The I.P.C.C. has outlined the goal of limiting the global average temperature rise to 1.5°C. In order to accomplish this, global net emissions of methane would need to decrease to near-zero and carbon dioxide to zero by the year 2050. However, emissions of these greenhouse gases have only increased over past decades, about 30% of emissions are from industrial activities or products that have no readily non-emitting alternative, and some have questioned the feasibility of large-scale carbon capture and storage.
Greenhouse gases emissions by sector
![Refer to caption and image description](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Global_Greenhouse_Gas_Emissions_by_Economic_Sector_2015.png/290px-Global_Greenhouse_Gas_Emissions_by_Economic_Sector_2015.png)
Global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions can be attributed to various sectors of the industrial economy, and can be broadly classified into
(Fix links to industrial processes)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Emissions-by-sector-%E2%80%93-pie-charts.png/220px-Emissions-by-sector-%E2%80%93-pie-charts.png)
Industrial processes
Certain chemical process yield important basic materials for society, e.g., (
Cement
- Calcination – combustion of limestone to remove the carbon in its calcium carbonate (CaCO3), resulting in useable calcium oxide (CaO) (also known as quicklime) and releasing carbon dioxide (CO2). Most prominently used to produce cement, although additionally used to provide a chemical flux, as in a blast furnace in the production of pig iron.
Steel
- Smelting – using carbon monoxide (CO) generally from combusted coke (a fossil fuel) in a blast furnace to remove oxygen from ores, producing pure metal and releasing CO2. Most prominently used in the production of steel.
Aluminum
- Hall–Héroult process – smelting aluminum (Al2O3) from coke (C) through electrolysis at high temperatures to yield pure aluminum (Al) and a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and CO2.
Fertilizer
- water-gas shift reaction, producing useable hydrogen(H2) and releasing CO2.
Land use
Deforestation
Agriculture
Industry and Manufacturing
Steel
Cement
Plastic
Fertilizer Production
Transport
Aviation
Something
Shipping
Trucking and haulage
Passenger cars
Fugitive
Electricity
- Air conditioning
Heating
- Dryers
- Stoves
Waste
The main sources of greenhouse gases due to human activity are:
- burning of fossil fuels and deforestation leading to higher carbon dioxide concentrations in the air. Land use change (mainly deforestation in the tropics) account for up to one third of total anthropogenic CO2 emissions.[20]
- livestock enteric fermentation and manure management,[21] paddy rice farming, land use and wetland changes, man-made lakes,[22] pipeline losses, and covered vented landfill emissions leading to higher methane atmospheric concentrations. Many of the newer style fully vented septic systems that enhance and target the fermentation process also are sources of atmospheric methane.
- use of systems and manufacturing processes.
- agricultural activities, including the use of fertilizers, that lead to higher nitrous oxide (N
2O) concentrations.
Food Types | Greenhouse Gas Emissions (g CO2-Ceq per g protein) |
---|---|
Ruminant Meat | 62
|
Recirculating Aquaculture | 30
|
Trawling Fishery | 26
|
Non-recirculating Aquaculture | 12
|
Pork | 10
|
Poultry | 10
|
Dairy | 9.1
|
Non-trawling Fishery | 8.6
|
Eggs
|
6.8
|
Starchy Roots
|
1.7
|
Wheat | 1.2
|
Maize | 1.2
|
Legumes
|
0.25
|
The seven sources of CO2 from fossil fuel combustion are (with percentage contributions for 2000–2004):[24]
This list needs updating, as it uses an out of date source.[needs update]
- Liquid fuels (e.g., gasoline, fuel oil): 36%
- Solid fuels (e.g., coal): 35%
- Gaseous fuels (e.g., natural gas): 20%
- Cement production:3 %
- Flaring gas industrially and at wells: 1%
- Non-fuel hydrocarbons:1%
- "International bunker fuels" of transport not included in national inventories: 4 %
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/34/Global_human_greenhouse_gas_emissions%2C_by_sector%2C_2016.svg/300px-Global_human_greenhouse_gas_emissions%2C_by_sector%2C_2016.svg.png)
Greenhouse gases emissions by sector
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Global_GHG_Emissions_by_Sector_2016.png/400px-Global_GHG_Emissions_by_Sector_2016.png)
This section needs expansion with: Information on emissions from other sectors. You can help by adding to it. (July 2013) |
Global greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to different sectors of the economy. This provides a picture of the varying contributions of different types of economic activity to global warming, and helps in understanding the changes required to mitigate climate change.
Manmade greenhouse gas emissions can be divided into those that arise from the combustion of fuels to produce energy, and those generated by other processes. Around two thirds of greenhouse gas emissions arise from the combustion of fuels.[26]
Energy may be produced at the point of consumption, or by a generator for consumption by others. Thus emissions arising from energy production may be categorised according to where they are emitted, or where the resulting energy is consumed. If emissions are attributed at the point of production, then electricity generators contribute about 25% of global greenhouse gas emissions.[27] If these emissions are attributed to the final consumer then 24% of total emissions arise from manufacturing and construction, 17% from transportation, 11% from domestic consumers, and 7% from commercial consumers.[28] Around 4% of emissions arise from the energy consumed by the energy and fuel industry itself.
The remaining third of emissions arise from processes other than energy production. 12% of total emissions arise from agriculture, 7% from land use change and forestry, 6% from industrial processes, and 3% from waste[26] . Around 6% of emissions are fugitive emissions, which are waste gases released by the extraction of fossil fuels.
Electricity generation
Electricity generation emits over a quarter of global greenhouse gases.[29] Coal-fired power stations are the single largest emitter, with over 10 Gt CO2 in 2018.[30] Although much less polluting than coal plants, natural gas-fired power plants are also major emitters.[31]
Tourism
According to
Trucking and haulage
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The trucking and haulage industry plays a part in production of CO2, contributing around 20% of the UK's total carbon emissions a year, with only the energy industry having a larger impact at around 39%.[33] Average carbon emissions within the haulage industry are falling—in the thirty-year period from 1977 to 2007, the carbon emissions associated with a 200-mile journey fell by 21 percent; NOx emissions are also down 87 percent, whereas journey times have fallen by around a third.[34]
Plastic
Plastic is produced mainly from fossil fuels. Plastic manufacturing is estimated to use 8 percent of yearly global oil production. The EPA estimates[citation needed] as many as five mass units of carbon dioxide are emitted for each mass unit of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) produced—the type of plastic most commonly used for beverage bottles,[35] the transportation produce greenhouse gases also.[36] Plastic waste emits carbon dioxide when it degrades. In 2018 research claimed that some of the most common plastics in the environment release the greenhouse gases methane and ethylene when exposed to sunlight in an amount that can affect the earth climate.[37][38]
From the other side, if it is placed in a landfill, it becomes a carbon sink[39] although biodegradable plastics have caused methane emissions. [40] Due to the lightness of plastic versus glass or metal, plastic may reduce energy consumption. For example, packaging beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is estimated to save 52% in transportation energy, if the glass or metal package is single-use, of course.
In 2019 a new report "Plastic and Climate" was published. According to the report plastic will contribute greenhouse gases in the equivalent of 850 million tonnes of
Pharmaceutical industry
The pharmaceutical industry emitted 52 megatonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere in 2015. This is more than the automotive sector. However this analysis used the combined emissions of conglomerates which produce pharmaceuticals as well as other products.[43]
Regional and national attribution of emissions
According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), GHG emissions in the United States can be traced from different sectors.
There are several ways of measuring greenhouse gas emissions, for example, see World Bank (2010)[44]: 362 for tables of national emissions data. Some variables that have been reported[45] include:
- Definition of measurement boundaries: Emissions can be attributed geographically, to the area where they were emitted (the territory principle) or by the activity principle to the territory produced the emissions. These two principles result in different totals when measuring, for example, electricity importation from one country to another, or emissions at an international airport.
- Time horizon of different gases: Contribution of a given greenhouse gas is reported as a CO2 equivalent. The calculation to determine this takes into account how long that gas remains in the atmosphere. This is not always known accurately and calculations must be regularly updated to reflect new information.
- What sectors are included in the calculation (e.g., energy industries, industrial processes, agriculture etc.): There is often a conflict between transparency and availability of data.
- The measurement protocol itself: This may be via direct measurement or estimation. The four main methods are the emission factor-based method, mass balance method, predictive emissions monitoring systems, and continuous emissions monitoring systems. These methods differ in accuracy, cost, and usability.
These measures are sometimes used by countries to assert various policy/ethical positions on climate change (Banuri et al., 1996, p. 94).[46] The use of different measures leads to a lack of comparability, which is problematic when monitoring progress towards targets. There are arguments for the adoption of a common measurement tool, or at least the development of communication between different tools.[45]
Emissions may be measured over long time periods. This measurement type is called historical or cumulative emissions. Cumulative emissions give some indication of who is responsible for the build-up in the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases (IEA, 2007, p. 199).[47]
The national accounts balance would be positively related to carbon emissions. The national accounts balance shows the difference between exports and imports. For many richer nations, such as the United States, the accounts balance is negative because more goods are imported than they are exported. This is mostly due to the fact that it is cheaper to produce goods outside of developed countries, leading the economies of developed countries to become increasingly dependent on services and not goods. We believed that a positive accounts balance would means that more production was occurring in a country, so more factories working would increase carbon emission levels.[48]
Emissions may also be measured across shorter time periods. Emissions changes may, for example, be measured against a base year of 1990. 1990 was used in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as the base year for emissions, and is also used in the Kyoto Protocol (some gases are also measured from the year 1995).[49]: 146, 149 A country's emissions may also be reported as a proportion of global emissions for a particular year.
Another measurement is of per capita emissions. This divides a country's total annual emissions by its mid-year population.[44]: 370 Per capita emissions may be based on historical or annual emissions (Banuri et al., 1996, pp. 106–07).[46]
While cities are sometimes considered to be disproportionate contributors to emissions, per-capita emissions tend to be lower for cities than the averages in their countries.[50]
From land-use change
![Refer to caption.](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture%2C_forestry_and_other_land_use%2C_1970-2010.png/220px-Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture%2C_forestry_and_other_land_use%2C_1970-2010.png)
Land-use change, e.g., the clearing of forests for agricultural use, can affect the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by altering how much carbon flows out of the atmosphere into carbon sinks.[51] Accounting for land-use change can be understood as an attempt to measure "net" emissions, i.e., gross emissions from all sources minus the removal of emissions from the atmosphere by carbon sinks (Banuri et al., 1996, pp. 92–93).[46]
There are substantial uncertainties in the measurement of net carbon emissions.[52] Additionally, there is controversy over how carbon sinks should be allocated between different regions and over time (Banuri et al., 1996, p. 93).[46] For instance, concentrating on more recent changes in carbon sinks is likely to favour those regions that have deforested earlier, e.g., Europe.
Greenhouse gas intensity
Greenhouse gas intensity is a ratio between greenhouse gas emissions and another metric, e.g., gross domestic product (GDP) or energy use. The terms "carbon intensity" and "
Cumulative and historical emissions
Cumulative anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) emissions of CO2 from fossil fuel use are a major cause of
Including biotic emissions brings about the same controversy mentioned earlier regarding carbon sinks and land-use change (Banuri et al., 1996, pp. 93–94).[46] The actual calculation of net emissions is very complex, and is affected by how carbon sinks are allocated between regions and the dynamics of the climate system.
Non-OECD countries accounted for 42% of cumulative energy-related CO2 emissions between 1890 and 2007.[56]: 179–80 Over this time period, the US accounted for 28% of emissions; the EU, 23%; Russia, 11%; China, 9%; other OECD countries, 5%; Japan, 4%; India, 3%; and the rest of the world, 18%.[56]: 179–80
Changes since a particular base year
Between 1970 and 2004, global growth in annual CO2 emissions was driven by North America, Asia, and the Middle East.
2O by 0.25% y−1.
Using different base years for measuring emissions has an effect on estimates of national contributions to global warming.[55]: 17–18 [58] This can be calculated by dividing a country's highest contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year, by that country's minimum contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year. Choosing between base years of 1750, 1900, 1950, and 1990 has a significant effect for most countries.[55]: 17–18 Within the G8 group of countries, it is most significant for the UK, France and Germany. These countries have a long history of CO2 emissions (see the section on Cumulative and historical emissions).
Annual emissions
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/GHG_per_capita_2000.svg/220px-GHG_per_capita_2000.svg.png)
Annual per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing countries.[49]: 144 Due to China's fast economic development, its annual per capita emissions are quickly approaching the levels of those in the Annex I group of the Kyoto Protocol (i.e., the developed countries excluding the US).[59] Other countries with fast growing emissions are South Korea, Iran, and Australia (which apart from the oil rich Persian Gulf states, now has the highest percapita emission rate in the world). On the other hand, annual per capita emissions of the EU-15 and the US are gradually decreasing over time.[59] Emissions in Russia and Ukraine have decreased fastest since 1990 due to economic restructuring in these countries.[60]
Energy statistics for fast growing economies are less accurate than those for the industrialized countries. For China's annual emissions in 2008, the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency estimated an uncertainty range of about 10%.[59]
The
2015 was the first year to see both total global economic growth and a reduction of carbon emissions.[61]
Top emitter countries
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/CO2_emission_pie_chart.svg/220px-CO2_emission_pie_chart.svg.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Ghg-co2-2012.svg/330px-Ghg-co2-2012.svg.png)
Annual
In 2009, the annual top ten emitting countries accounted for about two-thirds of the world's annual energy-related CO2 emissions.[62]
Country | % of global total annual emissions |
Total 2017 CO2 Emissions (kilotons) [64] | Tonnes of GHG per capita[65] |
---|---|---|---|
![]() |
29.3 | 10877217 | 7.7 |
![]() |
13.8 | 5107393 | 15.7 |
![]() |
6.6 | 2454773 | 1.8 |
![]() |
4.8 | 1764865 | 12.2 |
![]() |
3.6 | 1320776 | 10.4 |
![]() |
2.1 | 796528 | 9.7 |
South Korea | 1.8 | 673323 | 13.2 |
Iran | 1.8 | 671450 | 8.2 |
Saudi Arabia | 1.7 | 638761 | 19.3 |
Canada | 1.7 | 617300 | 16.9 |
Embedded emissions
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One way of attributing greenhouse gas emissions is to measure the
Davis and Caldeira (2010)[67]: 4 found that a substantial proportion of CO2 emissions are traded internationally. The net effect of trade was to export emissions from China and other emerging markets to consumers in the US, Japan, and Western Europe. Based on annual emissions data from the year 2004, and on a per-capita consumption basis, the top-5 emitting countries were found to be (in tCO2 per person, per year): Luxembourg (34.7), the US (22.0), Singapore (20.2), Australia (16.7), and Canada (16.6).[67]: 5 Carbon Trust research revealed that approximately 25% of all CO2 emissions from human activities 'flow' (i.e., are imported or exported) from one country to another. Major developed economies were found to be typically net importers of embodied carbon emissions—with UK consumption emissions 34% higher than production emissions, and Germany (29%), Japan (19%) and the US (13%) also significant net importers of embodied emissions.[68]
Effect of policy
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Governments have taken action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to
Countries and regions listed in Annex I of the
Projections
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A wide range of projections of future emissions have been produced.
Relative CO2 emission from various fuels
One liter of gasoline, when used as a fuel, produces 2.32 kg (about 1300 liters or 1.3 cubic meters) of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. One US gallon produces 19.4 lb (1,291.5 gallons or 172.65 cubic feet).[81][82][83]
Fuel name | CO2 emitted (lbs/106 Btu) |
CO2 emitted (g/MJ) |
CO2 emitted (g/kWh) |
---|---|---|---|
Natural gas | 117 | 50.30 | 181.08 |
Liquefied petroleum gas | 139 | 59.76 | 215.14 |
Propane | 139 | 59.76 | 215.14 |
Aviation gasoline | 153 | 65.78 | 236.81 |
Automobile gasoline | 156 | 67.07 | 241.45 |
Kerosene | 159 | 68.36 | 246.10 |
Fuel oil | 161 | 69.22 | 249.19 |
tire derived fuel
|
189 | 81.26 | 292.54 |
Wood and wood waste | 195 | 83.83 | 301.79 |
Coal (bituminous) | 205 | 88.13 | 317.27 |
Coal (sub-bituminous) | 213 | 91.57 | 329.65 |
Coal (lignite) | 215 | 92.43 | 332.75 |
Petroleum coke | 225 | 96.73 | 348.23 |
Tar-sand bitumen | [citation needed] | [citation needed] | [citation needed] |
Coal (anthracite) | 227 | 97.59 | 351.32 |
Justifications
Deleted material
- Already in the lead, or in the lead and another place in the article.
- Relatively unimportant. This may be debatable, and so feel free to add back those sentences. A copy will be left in the talk page.
- Out of date, this mainly refers to the graphs. It seemed as though the last time substantial content was updated was generally circa 2010.
- Food table is in livestock!
Added material
- The article is currently roughly 30% fewer characters than the global warmingarticle, there's room to expand.
- Visuals should be clear and work in harmony with one another.
References
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