Afonso de Albuquerque
Afonso de Albuquerque | |
---|---|
2nd Viceroy of Portuguese India | |
In office 4 November 1509 – 8 September 1515 | |
Monarch | Manuel I |
Preceded by | Francisco de Almeida |
Succeeded by | Lopo Soares de Albergaria |
Personal details | |
Pronunciation | Portuguese: [ɐˈfõsu ði alβuˈkɛɾkɨ] |
Born | Afonso de Albuquerque c. 1453 Alhandra, Kingdom of Portugal |
Died | 16 December 1515 (aged c. 62) Goa, Portuguese India, Portuguese Empire (now in India) |
Children | Brás de Albuquerque |
Occupation | Admiral Governor of India |
Signature | |
Afonso de Albuquerque, 1st Duke of Goa (c. 1453 – 16 December 1515), was a Portuguese general, admiral, and statesman. He served as viceroy of Portuguese India from 1509 to 1515, during which he expanded Portuguese influence across the Indian Ocean and built a reputation as a fierce and skilled military commander.[1][2][3]
Albuquerque advanced the three-fold Portuguese grand scheme of combating Islam, spreading Christianity, and securing the trade of spices by establishing a Portuguese Asian empire.[4] Among his achievements, Albuquerque managed to conquer Goa and was the first European of the Renaissance to raid the Persian Gulf, and he led the first voyage by a European fleet into the Red Sea.[5] He is generally considered a highly effective military commander,[6] and "probably the greatest naval commander of the age",[7] given his successful strategy — he attempted to close all the Indian Ocean naval passages to the Atlantic, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and to the Pacific, transforming it into a Portuguese mare clausum.[8] He was appointed head of the "fleet of the Arabian and Persian sea" in 1506.[9]
Many of the conflicts in which he was directly involved took place in the Indian Ocean, in the Persian Gulf regions for control of the trade routes, and on the coasts of India. His military brilliance in these initial campaigns enabled Portugal to become the first global empire in history.
During the last five years of his life, he turned to administration,
Throughout his career, he received
Early life
Afonso de Albuquerque was born in 1453 in Alhandra, near Lisbon.[18] He was the second son of Gonçalo de Albuquerque, Lord of Vila Verde dos Francos, and Dona Leonor de Menezes. His father held an important position at court and was connected by remote illegitimate descent with the Portuguese monarchy. He was a descendant of King Denis’s illegitimate son, Afonso Sanches, Lord of Albuquerque. He was educated in mathematics and Latin at the court of Afonso V of Portugal, where he befriended Prince John, the future King John II of Portugal.[19][20]
Early military service, 1471-1509
First expedition to India, 1503
When King
Second expedition to India, 1506-1509
Return, 1506
Albuquerque returned home in July 1504 and was well received by King Manuel I. After he assisted with the creation of a strategy for the Portuguese efforts in the east, King Manuel entrusted him with the command of a squadron of five vessels in the fleet of sixteen sailing for India in early 1506, headed by Tristão da Cunha.[8] The aim of the expedition was to conquer Socotra and build a fortress there, hoping to close the trade in the Red Sea.
Albuquerque went as "chief-captain for the Coast of Arabia", sailing under da Cunha's orders until reaching Mozambique.[22] He carried a sealed letter with a secret mission ordered by the king: after fulfilling the first mission, he was to replace the first viceroy of India, Francisco de Almeida, whose term ended two years later.[6] Before departing, he legitimized his son Brás ("Braz" in the old Portuguese spelling), born to a common Portuguese woman named Joana Vicente in 1500.[23]
First conquest of Socotra and Ormuz, 1507
The fleet left Lisbon on 6 April 1506. Albuquerque piloted his ship himself, having lost his appointed pilot on departure. In
At Socotra, they parted ways: Tristão da Cunha sailed for India, where he would relieve the Portuguese
Ormuz was then a tributary state of Shah Ismail I (r. 1501–1524) of Safavid Persia. In a famous episode, shortly after its conquest, Albuquerque was confronted by Persian envoys, who demanded the payment of the due tribute from him instead. He ordered them to be given a stock of cannonballs, arrows and weapons, retorting that "such was the currency struck in Portugal to pay the tribute demanded from the dominions of King Manuel".[27] According to Brás de Albuquerque, it was Shah Ismael who first addressed Albuquerque as "Lion of the seas".[24]
Afonso began building the
Arrest at Cannanore, 1509
Afonso arrived at
On 3 February 1509, Almeida fought the naval
Governor of Portuguese India, 1509–1515
Afonso was released after three months' confinement, on the arrival at Cannanore of the Marshal of Portugal Fernando Coutinho with a large fleet sent by the king.[8] Coutinho was the most important Portuguese noble to visit India up to that point. He brought an armada of fifteen ships and 3,000 men to defend Afonso's rights, and to take Calicut.[34]
On 4 November 1509, Afonso became the second Governor of Portuguese India, a position he would hold until his death. Almeida set off to return to Portugal, but he was killed before he got there in a skirmish with the Khoekhoe.[35] Upon his assuming office, Afonso intended to dominate the Muslim world and control the Spice trade.[36]
Initially, King Manuel I and his council in Lisbon tried to distribute the power by outlining three areas of jurisdiction in the Indian Ocean.
Conquest of Goa, 1510
In January 1510, obeying the orders from the king and aware of the absence of the Zamorin, Afonso advanced on Calicut. The attack was initially successful, but unravelled when Marshal Coutinho, infuriated by Albuquerque's success against Calicut and desiring glory for himself, attacked the Zamorin's palace against Albuquerque's advice, and was ambushed. During the retreat, Afonso was badly wounded and was forced to flee to the ships, barely escaping with his life, while Coutinho was killed.[6][37]
Soon after the failed attack, Afonso assembled a fleet of 23 ships and 1200 men. Contemporary reports state that he wanted to fight the
A first assault took place in Goa from 4 March to 20 May 1510. After the initial occupation, feeling unable to hold the city given the poor condition of its fortifications, the cooling of Hindu residents' support and insubordination among his ranks following an attack by Ismail Adil Shah, Afonso refused a truce offered by the Sultan and abandoned the city in August. His fleet was scattered, and a palace revolt in Kochi hindered his recovery, so he headed to Fort Anjediva. New ships arrived from Portugal, which were intended for the nobleman Diogo Mendes de Vasconcelos at Malacca, who had been given a rival command of the region.
Three months later, on 25 November Afonso reappeared at Goa with a renovated fleet. Diogo Mendes de Vasconcelos was compelled to accompany him with the reinforcements for Malacca
In Goa, Afonso established the first Portuguese
Albuquerque founded at Goa the Hospital Real de Goa or Royal Hospital of Goa, by the Church of Santa Catarina. Upon hearing that the doctors were extorting the sickly with excessive fees, Albuquerque summoned them, declaring that "You charge a physician's pay and don't know what disease the men who serve our lord the King suffer from. Thus, I want to teach you what is it that they die from"[42] and put them to work building the city walls all day till nightfall before releasing them.[43]
Despite constant attacks, Goa became the center of Portuguese India, with the conquest triggering the compliance of neighbouring kingdoms: the
Afonso then used Goa to secure the
Conquest of Malacca, 1511
Afonso explained to his armies why the Portuguese wanted to capture Malacca:
- "The King of Portugal has often commanded me to go to the Straits, because...this was the best place to intercept the trade which the Moslems...carry on in these parts. So it was to do Our Lord's service that we were brought here; by taking Malacca, we would close the Straits so that never again would the Moslems be able to bring their spices by this route.... I am very sure that, if this Malacca trade is taken out of their hands, Cairo and Mecca will be completely lost." (The Commentaries of the Great Afonso de Albuquerque)
In February 1511, through a friendly Hindu merchant, Nina Chatu, Afonso received a letter from Rui de Araújo, one of the nineteen Portuguese held at Malacca since 1509. It urged moving forward with the largest possible fleet to demand their release, and gave details of the fortifications. Afonso showed it to Diogo Mendes de Vasconcelos, as an argument to advance as a joint fleet. In April 1511, after fortifying Goa, he gathered a force of about 900 Portuguese, 200 Hindu mercenaries and about eighteen ships.[44] He then sailed to Malacca against orders and despite the protest of Diogo Mendes, who claimed command of the expedition. Afonso eventually centralized the Portuguese government in the Indian Ocean. After the Malaccan conquest, he wrote a letter to the king to explain his disagreement with Diogo Mendes, suggesting that further divisions could be harmful to the Portuguese in India.[6] Under his command was Ferdinand Magellan, who had participated in the failed embassy of Diogo Lopes de Sequeira in 1509.
After a false start towards the Red Sea, they sailed to the Strait of Malacca. It was the richest city that the Portuguese tried to take, and a focal point in the trade network where Malay traders met Gujarati, Chinese, Japanese, Javanese, Bengali, Persian and Arabic, among others, described by
Afonso made a bold approach to the city, his ships decorated with banners, firing cannon volleys. He declared himself lord of all the navigation, demanded the Sultan release the prisoners and pay for damages, and demanded consent to build a fortified trading post. The Sultan eventually freed the prisoners, but was unimpressed by the small Portuguese contingent. Afonso then burned some ships at the port and four coastal buildings as a demonstration. The city being divided by the Malacca River, the connecting bridge was a strategic point, so at dawn on 25 July, the Portuguese landed and fought a tough battle, facing poisoned arrows, taking the bridge in the evening. After fruitlessly waiting for the Sultan's reaction, they returned to the ships and prepared a junk (offered by Chinese merchants), filling it with men, artillery and sandbags. Commanded by António de Abreu, it sailed upriver at high tide to the bridge. The day after, all had landed. After a fierce fight during which the Sultan appeared with an army of war elephants, the defenders were dispersed and the Sultan fled.[6] Afonso waited for the reaction of the Sultan. Merchants approached, asking for Portuguese protection. They were given banners to mark their premises, a sign that they would not be looted. On 15 August, the Portuguese attacked again, but the Sultan had fled the city. Under strict orders, they looted the city, but respected the banners.[45]
Afonso prepared Malacca's defenses against a Malay counterattack,[44] building a fortress, assigning his men to shifts and using stones from the mosque and the cemetery. Despite the delays caused by heat and malaria, it was completed in November 1511, its surviving door now known as "A Famosa" ('the famous'). It was possibly then that Afonso had a large stone engraved with the names of the participants in the conquest. To quell disagreements over the order of the names, he had it set facing the wall, with the single inscription Lapidem quem reprobaverunt aedificantes (Latin for "The stone the builders rejected", from David's prophecy, Psalm 118:22–23) on the front.[46]
He settled the Portuguese administration, reappointing Rui de Araújo as factor, a post assigned before his 1509 arrest, and appointing rich merchant Nina Chatu to replace the previous Bendahara. Besides assisting in the governance of the city and the first Portuguese coinage, he provided the junks for several diplomatic missions.[47] Meanwhile, Afonso arrested and had executed the powerful Javanese merchant Utimuti Raja who, after being appointed to a position in the Portuguese administration as representative of the Javanese population, had maintained contacts with the exiled royal family.
Shipwreck on the Flor de la mar, 1511
On 20 November 1511 Afonso sailed from Malacca to the coast of Malabar on the old Flor de la Mar carrack that had served to support the conquest of Malacca. Despite its unsound condition, he used it to transport the treasure amassed in the conquest, given its large capacity.[6] He wanted to give the court of King Manuel a show of Malaccan treasures. There were also offerings from the Ayutthaya Kingdom (Thailand) to the king of Portugal, and all his own fortune. On the voyage, the Flor de la Mar was wrecked in a storm, and Afonso barely escaped drowning.[44]
Missions from Malacca
Embassies to Pegu, Sumatra and Siam, 1511
Most Muslim and Gujarati merchants having fled the city, Afonso invested in diplomatic efforts demonstrating generosity to Southeast Asian merchants, like the Chinese, to encourage good relations with the Portuguese. Trade and diplomatic missions were sent to continental kingdoms: Rui Nunes da Cunha was sent to
Expedition to the "spice islands" (Maluku islands), 1512
In November, after having secured Malacca and learning the location of the then secret "
Return to Cochin and Goa
Afonso returned from Malacca to Cochin, but could not sail to Goa as it faced a serious revolt headed by the forces of
While at Cochin, Albuquerque started a school. In a private letter to King Manuel I, he stated that he had found a chest full of books with which to teach the children of married Portuguese settlers (casados) and Christian converts, of which there were about a hundred, to read and write.[53]
On 10 September 1512, Afonso sailed from Cochin to Goa with fourteen ships carrying 1,700 soldiers. Determined to recapture the fortress, he ordered trenches dug and a wall breached. But on the day of the planned final assault, Rasul Khan surrendered. Afonso demanded the fort be handed over with its artillery, ammunition and horses, and the deserters to be given up. Some had joined Rasul Khan when the Portuguese were forced to flee Goa in May 1510, others during the recent siege. Rasul Khan consented, on condition that their lives be spared. Afonso agreed and he left Goa. He did spare the lives of the deserters, but had them horribly mutilated. One such renegade was Fernão Lopes, bound for Portugal in custody, who escaped at the island of Saint Helena and led a 'Robinson Crusoe' life for many years. After such measures the town became the most prosperous Portuguese settlement in India.
Administration and diplomacy, 1512-1515
Ethiopian embassy, 1512
In December 1512 an envoy from Ethiopia arrived at Goa.
In February 1513, while Mateus was in Portugal, Afonso sailed to the Red Sea with a force of about 1000 Portuguese and 400 Malabaris. He was under orders to secure that channel for Portugal. Socotra had proved ineffective to control the Red Sea entrance and was abandoned, and Afonso's hint that Massawa could be a good Portuguese base might have been influenced by Mateus' reports.[6]
Campaign in the Red Sea, 1513
Knowing that the Mamluks were preparing a second fleet at
Although Albuquerque's expedition failed to reach Suez, such an incursion into the Red Sea by a Christian fleet for the first time in history stunned the Muslim world, and panic spread in Cairo.[57]
Submission of Calicut
Albuquerque achieved during his term a favourable end to hostilities between the Portuguese and the Zamorin of Calicut, which had lasted since the massacre of the Portuguese in Calicut in 1502. As naval trade faltered and vassals defected, with no foreseeable solutions to the conflict with the Portuguese, the court of the Zamorin fell to in-fighting. The ruling Zamorin was assassinated and replaced by a rival, under the instigation of Albuquerque, permitting peace talks to commence. The Portuguese were allowed to build a fortress in Calicut itself, and acquired rights to obtain as much pepper and ginger as they wished, at stipulated prices, and half the
Goa, 1514
With peace concluded, in 1514 Afonso devoted himself to governing Goa and receiving embassies from Indian governors, strengthening the city and encouraging marriages of Portuguese men and local women. At that time, Portuguese women were barred from traveling overseas in order to maintain discipline among the men on board the ships. In 1511 under a policy which Afonso promulgated, the Portuguese government encouraged their explorers to marry local women. To promote settlement, the King of Portugal granted freeman status and exemption from Crown taxes to Portuguese men (known as casados, or "married men") who ventured overseas and married local women. With Afonso's encouragement, mixed marriages flourished, giving birth to Portuguese-Indians or mestiços. He appointed local people for positions in the Portuguese administration and did not interfere with local traditions (except "sati", the practice of immolating widows, which he banned).
In March 1514 King Manuel sent to Pope Leo X a huge and exotic embassy led by Tristão da Cunha, who toured the streets of Rome in an extravagant procession of animals from the colonies and wealth from the Indies. His reputation reached its peak, laying foundations of the Portuguese Empire in the East.
In early 1514, Afonso sent ambassadors to
Conquest of Ormuz and Illness
In 1513, at Cannanore, Afonso was visited by a Persian ambassador from Shah
At the same time, Albuquerque decided to conclude the effective conquest of Hormuz. He had learned that after the Portuguese retreat in 1507, a young king was reigning under the influence of a powerful Persian vizier, Reis Hamed, whom the king greatly feared. At Ormuz in March 1515, Afonso met the king and asked the vizier to be present. He then had him immediately stabbed and killed by his entourage, thus "freeing" the terrified king, so the island in the Persian Gulf yielded to him without resistance and remained a vassal state of the Portuguese Empire. Ormuz itself would not be Persian territory for another century, until an English-Persian alliance finally expelled the Portuguese in 1622.[61] At Ormuz, Afonso met with Miguel Ferreira, returning with rich presents and an ambassador, carrying a letter from the Persian potentate Shah Ismael, inviting Afonso to become a leading lord in Persia.[62] There he remained, engaging in diplomatic efforts, receiving envoys and overseeing the construction of the new fortress, while becoming increasingly ill. His illness was reported as early as September 1515.[63] In November 1515, he embarked on a journey back to Goa.
Death
At this time, his political enemies at the Portuguese court were planning his downfall. They had lost no opportunity in stirring up the jealousy of King Manuel against him, insinuating that Afonso intended to usurp power in Portuguese India.[17] While on his return voyage from Ormuz in the Persian Gulf, near the harbor of Chaul, he received news of a Portuguese fleet arriving from Europe, bearing dispatches announcing that he was to be replaced by his personal foe, Lopo Soares de Albergaria. Realizing the plot that his enemies had moved against him, profoundly disillusioned, he voiced his bitterness: "Grave must be my sins before the King, for I am in ill favor with the King for love of the men, and with the men for love of the King."[64]
Feeling himself near death, he donned the surcoat of the Order of Santiago, of which he was a knight, and drew up his will, appointed the captain and senior officials of Ormuz, and organized a final council with his captains to decide the main matters affecting the Portuguese State of India.[63] He wrote a brief letter to King Manuel, asking him to confer onto his natural son "all of the high honors and rewards" that Afonso had received, and assuring Manuel of his loyalty.[61][65]
On 16 December 1515, Afonso de Albuquerque died within sight of Goa. As his death was known, in the city "great wailing arose",[66] and many took to the streets to witness his body carried on a chair by his main captains, in a procession lit by torches amidst the crowd.[67] Afonso's body was buried in Goa, according to his will, in the Church of Nossa Senhora da Serra (Our Lady of the Hill), which he had been built in 1513 to thank the Madonna for his escape from Kamaran island.[a] That night, the population of Goa, both Hindu and Portuguese, gathered to mourn his death.[66]
In Portugal, King Manuel's zigzagging policies continued, still trapped by the constraints of real-time medieval communication between Lisbon and India and unaware that Afonso was dead. Hearing rumours that the
After 51 years, in 1566, his body was moved to Nossa Senhora da Graça church in Lisbon,[69] which was ruined and rebuilt after the 1755 Great Lisbon earthquake.
Legacy
King Manuel I of Portugal was belatedly convinced of Afonso's loyalty, and endeavoured to atone for his lack of confidence in Afonso by heaping honours upon his son, Brás de Albuquerque (1500–1580),[70] whom he renamed "Afonso" in memory of the father. Afonso de Albuquerque was a prolific writer, having sent numerous letters during his governorship, covering topics from minor issues to major strategies. In 1557 his son published his biography under the title Commentarios do Grande Affonso d'Alboquerque.[71]
In 1572, Afonso's actions were described in
A
Numerous homages have been paid to Afonso. He is featured in the
Two Portuguese Navy ships have been named in his honour: the sloop
Notes
References
Citations
- ^ Ooi 2004, p. 137
- ^ a b Stephens 1897, p. 1
- ^ Butt 2005, p. 10
- ^ Ooi 2004, p. 17
- ^ Stevens 1711, p. 113
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Diffie, Winius & Shafer 1977, pp. 239–260
- ^ Ricklefs 2002, p. 26
- ^ a b c d e f Chisholm 1911, p. 526
- ^ Aubin, J (1985). "Albuquerque, Alfonso De". Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. 1 (8 ed.). pp. 823–824.
- ^ Erickson & Goldstein 2012, p. 403
- ^ a b Bandelier 1907.
- (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^ Hespeler-Boultbee 2011, p. 186
- ^ Clough 1994, p. 85
- ^ Couto & Loureiro 2008, p. 219
- ^ Subrahmanyam 1998, p. 365
- ^ a b c d Albuquerque, Brás de (1774). Commentarios do grande Afonso Dalboquerque, parte IV, pp. 200–206
- ISBN 978-0395669693.
- ^ Stephens 1897.
- ^ ISBN 978-0389039655.
- ^ a b c Livermore, Harold V. "Afonso de Albuquerque". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ Diogo do Couto, Décadas da Ásia, década X, livro I
- ^ Sanceau, Elaine (1936). Indies Adventure: The Amazing Career of Afonso de Albuquerque, Captain-general and Governor of India (1509–1515). Blackie.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-206-1514-4.
- ^ Hespeler-Boultbee 2006, p. 178
- ^ Crowley 2015, p. 195–199
- ^ In Portuguese: [...]mandando-lhe dizer que aquela era a moeda que se lavrava em Portugal pera pagar páreas àqueles que as pediam aos lugares e senhorios del-rei Dom Manuel, rei de Portugal e senhor das Índias e do reino de Ormuz. in Fernão Lopes de Castanheda (1554) Historia do descobrimento e conquista de India pelos Portugueses Volume II, pg.211
- ^ Carter, Laraine Newhouse (1991). "Chapter 1B. The Gulf During the Medieval Period". Persian Gulf States. Countries of the World. Bureau Development, Inc.
- ^ Crowley 2015, pp. 199–200
- ^ Crowley 2015, pp. 200–201
- ^ de Castanheda, Fernão Lopes (1833). Historia do Descobrimento e Conquista da India pelos Portugueses. Typographia Rollandiana.
- ^ Stephens 1897, pp. 61–62
- ^ Whitewayy 1995, p. 126
- ^ Neto, Ricardo Bonalume. MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History p. 68. Cowles Enthusiast Media Spring. 1 April 2002 (Page news on 20 October 2006)
- ^ Crowley 2015, p. 240
- ^ Andaya & Andaya 1984
- ^ Crowley 2015, pp. 248–254
- ^ a b c Shastry & Borges 2000, pp. 34–36
- ^ Kerr 1824[page needed]
- ^ De Souza 1990, pp. 220–221
- ^ Dalgado 1982, p. 382
- ^ Gaspar Correia Lendas da Índia, book II tome II, part I pp.440–441, 1923 Edition
- ISBN 978-9896442194.
- ^ a b c Ricklefs 1991, p. 23
- ^ Bosworth 2007, p. 317
- ^ de Albuquerque, Afonso (1774). Commentarios do grande Afonso Dalboquerque: capitão geral que foi das Indias Orientaes em tempo do muito poderoso rey D. Manuel, o primeiro deste nome. Na Regia Officina Typografica.
- ^ De Souza 1985, p. 60
- ^ Teixeira, Manuel (1963). The Portuguese Missions in Malacca and Singapore (1511–1958). Agência Geral do Ultramar.
- ISBN 81-206-0535-7.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-226-46731-3.
- ^ Ricklefs 1991, p. 24
- ISBN 978-0-340-69676-7.
- ^ Afonso de Albuquerque Cartas para El-Rei D. Manuel I edited by António Baião (1942). Letter of 1 April 1512
- ^ Rogers 1962, p. 1
- ^ Newitt 2005, p. 87
- ^ McGregor 2006, p. 20
- ^ Crowley 2015, p. 335
- ^ Sanceau, Elaine (1936). Indies Adventure: The Amazing Career of Afonso de Albuquerque, Captain-general and Governor of India (1509–1515). p. 227.
- ^ Bedini 1997, p. 112
- ^ Crowley 2015, pp. 319–320
- ^ a b Toorani, Mohamed (July 2012). "Afonso de Albuquerque: History Figure of the Month". International History Blog.
- ^ Rose, John Holland; Benians, Ernest Alfred; Newton, Arthur Percival (1928). The Cambridge History of the British Empire. CUP Archive. p. 12.
- ^ a b c Muchembled & Monter 2007, p. 238
- ^ Correia 1860, p. 458
- ^ Rinehart, Robert (1991). "Chapter 2B. The Expansion of Portugal". Portugal. Countries of the World. Bureau Development, Inc.
- ^ a b Correia 1860, p. 459
- ^ Correia 1860, p. 460
- ISBN 81-206-0590-X.
- ^ Barbosa Machado, Diogo (1741). Bibliotheca Lusitana (in Portuguese). Vol. 1. p. 23.
- ^ Stier, Hans Erich (1942). Die Welt als Geschichte: Zeitschrift für Universalgeschichte (in German). Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag.
- ISBN 0-252-06321-X.[page needed]
- ^ Sukhadwala, Sejal (27 April 2012). "Do You Know Alphonso Mango?". The Guardian.
- ^ Alvares, Patricia Ann (15 April 2019). "The Jesuits and the Mango". The Times of India.
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- Stephens, Henry Morse (1897). Albuquerque. ISBN 978-81-206-1524-3.
- Stevens, John (1711). A New Collection of Voyages and Travels. Oxford University. ISBN 978-0699168212.
- Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (1998). The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521646291.
- Whitewayy, Richard Stephen (1995). The Rise of Portuguese Power in India (1497–1550). Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0500-8.
In other languages
- de Albuquerque, Afonso (1774). Commentarios do grande Afonso Dalboquerque: capitão geral que foi das Indias Orientaes em tempo do muito poderoso rey D. Manuel, o primeiro deste nome. Na Regia Officina Typografica.
- Albuquerque, Afonso de, D. Manuel I, António Baião, "Cartas para el-rei d". Manuel I", Editora Livraria Sá de Costa (1957)
Primary sources
- Kerr, Robert (1824). A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels, Arranged in Systematic Order. Edinburgh: William Blackwood. Volume 6, chapter I.
External links
- Paul Lunde, The coming of the Portuguese, 2006, Saudi Aramco World