Socotra
Official name | Socotra Archipelago |
---|---|
Type | Natural |
Criteria | x |
Designated | 2008 (32nd session) |
Reference no. | 1263 |
Region | Arab States |
Socotra (
The island of Socotra represents around 95% of the landmass of the Socotra archipelago. It lies 380 kilometres (205 nautical miles) south of the Arabian Peninsula[5] and 240 kilometres (130 nautical miles) east of Somalia; despite being controlled by Yemen, it is geographically part of Africa.[6] The island is isolated and home to a high number of endemic species. Up to a third of its plant life is endemic. It has been described as "the most alien-looking place on Earth".[7] The island measures 132 kilometres (82 mi) in length and 42 kilometres (26 mi) in width.[6][8] In 2008, Socotra was recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[9]
Currently, the island is under the de facto control of the UAE-backed Southern Transitional Council, a secessionist participant in Yemen's ongoing civil war.[10]
Etymology
Scholars vary regarding the origin of the name of the island. The name Socotra may derive from:
- A Greek name that is derived from the name of a Sabaic and Ḥaḑramitic inscriptions as Dhū-Śakūrid (S³krd).[11]
- The Arabian terms suq, market, and qutra, a vulgar form of qatir, which refers to dragon's blood.[12]
History
There was initially an
The
In 880, an
In 1507, a
In 1834, the East India Company stationed a garrison on Socotra, in the expectation that the Mahra sultan of Qishn and Socotra would accept an offer to sell the island. The lack of good anchorages proved to be as much a problem for the British as the Portuguese. The sultan refused to sell, and the British left in 1835. After the capture of Aden by the British in 1839, they lost interest in acquiring Socotra. In 1886, the British government decided to conclude a protectorate treaty with the sultan in which he promised this time to "refrain from entering into any correspondence, agreement, or treaty with any foreign nation or power, except with the knowledge and sanction of the British Government".[21] In October 1967, in the wake of the departure of the British from Aden and southern Arabia, the Mahra Sultanate was abolished. On 30 November of the same year, Socotra became part of South Yemen.
Since Yemeni unification in 1990, Socotra has been a part of the Republic of Yemen, affiliated first to Aden Governorate. Then in 2004, it was moved to be a part of the Hadhramaut Governorate. Later in 2013, it became a governorate of its own.
Socotra was ravaged by the 26 December 2004 tsunami causing a child's death and the wreckage of 40 fishing boats although the island is 4,600 km (2,858 mi) away from tsunami epicentre off the west coast of Aceh, Indonesia.[22] In 2015, the cyclones Chapala and Megh struck the island, causing severe damage to its infrastructure.[23]
United Arab Emirates takeover
Beginning in 2015, the UAE began increasing its presence on Socotra, first with humanitarian aid in the wake of tropical cyclones Chapala and Megh, and eventually establishing a military presence on the island. On April 30, 2018, the UAE, as part of the ongoing
In May 2019, the Yemeni government accused the UAE of landing around 100 separatist troops in Socotra, which the UAE denied, deepening a rift between the two nominal allies in Yemen's civil war.[27] In February 2020, a regiment of the Yemeni army stationed in Socotra rebelled and pledged allegiance to the UAE-backed separatist Southern Transitional Council (STC) in Socotra, renouncing the UN-backed government of Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi.[28] The STC seized control of the island in June 2020.[29]
According to media reports in 2020 and 2022, the UAE is set to establish military and intelligence facilities on the Socotra Archipelago.[30][31] Initially, the UAE were part of the Saudi Arabian–led intervention in Yemen launched in 2011. But this cooperation later showed cracks due to diverging geopolitical goals that led the UAE reducing its intervention forces in Yemen from 2019 onwards,[30] while increasing its support to the STC and taking over Socotra in pursuing their own geostrategic interests to retain influence across Yemen's southern coastal areas.[32] This take-over was declared illegitimate by Yemen President Hadi stating that the UAE was acting like an occupier.[33]
Geography
Socotra is one of the most isolated landforms on Earth of continental origin (i.e. not of volcanic origin). The archipelago was once part of the supercontinent of Gondwana and detached during the Miocene epoch, in the same set of rifting events that opened the Gulf of Aden to its northwest.[34] Politically, the Socotra archipelago is a part of Yemen, but geographically it belongs to Africa as it represents a continental fragment that is geologically linked to the continental African Somali Plate.[35]
The archipelago consists of the main island of Socotra (3,665 km2 or 1,415 sq mi), three smaller islands,
- The narrow coastal plains with its characteristic dunes, formed by monsoon winds blowing during three summer months. The wind takes up the coast sand in a spiral and, as a result, forms the snow-white Socotran sand dunes.[38]
- The karst topography based on limestone rock areas intersected with inter-hill plains. For centuries until recently Socotra's main economic activity was subsistent transhumant animal husbandry, predominantly goats and sheep on these plateaus. The outcome is a unique and still active cultural landscape of agro-pastoralism with its characteristic rainwater harvesting systems.[39]
- A central massif, the Hajhir Mountains, composed of granite and metamorphic rocks.[40] rising to 1,503 metres (4,931 ft).[41]
-
Sand dunes on the northeast coast
-
Momi Plateau with rainwater harvest structures, water storage body, shelter for herders
-
A wadi in Socotra
Climate
The climate of Socotra is classified in the
In an extremely unusual occurrence, the normally arid western side of Socotra received more than 410 millimetres (16.14 in) of rain from Cyclone Chapala in November 2015.[43] Cyclones rarely affect the island, but in 2015 Cyclone Megh became the strongest, and only, major cyclone to strike the island directly.
Climate data for Socotra | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 30.0 (86.0) |
31.7 (89.1) |
32.8 (91.0) |
37.2 (99.0) |
38.5 (101.3) |
40.6 (105.1) |
37.4 (99.3) |
34.4 (93.9) |
35.6 (96.1) |
37.0 (98.6) |
33.0 (91.4) |
30.6 (87.1) |
40.6 (105.1) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 27.1 (80.8) |
27.8 (82.0) |
29.2 (84.6) |
31.8 (89.2) |
34.6 (94.3) |
33.8 (92.8) |
32.3 (90.1) |
32.4 (90.3) |
33.2 (91.8) |
30.8 (87.4) |
29.6 (85.3) |
28.3 (82.9) |
30.8 (87.4) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 24.8 (76.6) |
24.8 (76.6) |
26.3 (79.3) |
28.7 (83.7) |
31.3 (88.3) |
30.8 (87.4) |
29.5 (85.1) |
29.5 (85.1) |
29.3 (84.7) |
27.9 (82.2) |
27.0 (80.6) |
25.8 (78.4) |
28.0 (82.4) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 22.6 (72.7) |
21.7 (71.1) |
23.3 (73.9) |
25.5 (77.9) |
28.0 (82.4) |
27.9 (82.2) |
26.8 (80.2) |
26.5 (79.7) |
26.4 (79.5) |
24.9 (76.8) |
24.4 (75.9) |
23.3 (73.9) |
25.1 (77.2) |
Record low °C (°F) | 17.0 (62.6) |
17.2 (63.0) |
18.9 (66.0) |
20.3 (68.5) |
21.2 (70.2) |
22.8 (73.0) |
21.7 (71.1) |
22.0 (71.6) |
22.2 (72.0) |
19.4 (66.9) |
18.9 (66.0) |
17.0 (62.6) |
17.0 (62.6) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 2.5 (0.10) |
2.5 (0.10) |
10.2 (0.40) |
0.0 (0.0) |
2.5 (0.10) |
30.5 (1.20) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
2.5 (0.10) |
10.2 (0.40) |
50.8 (2.00) |
81.3 (3.20) |
193.0 (7.60) |
Average rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 2.4 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 1.0 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.6 | 2.2 | 7.7 | 5.2 | 21.7 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
70 | 68 | 67 | 66 | 62 | 60 | 58 | 57 | 62 | 69 | 72 | 73 | 65 |
Source: Deutscher Wetterdienst[44] |
Flora and fauna
Socotra is considered the jewel of biodiversity in the Arabian Sea.[45] In the 1990s, a team of United Nations biologists conducted a survey of the archipelago's flora and fauna. They counted nearly 700 endemic species, found nowhere else on earth; only New Zealand,[46] Hawaii, New Caledonia, and the Galápagos Islands have more impressive numbers.[47]
The long geological isolation of the Socotra archipelago and its fierce heat and drought have combined to create a unique and spectacular endemic flora. Botanical field surveys led by the Centre for Middle Eastern Plants of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, indicate that 307 out of the 825 (37%) plant species on Socotra are endemic.[48] The entire flora of the Socotra Archipelago has been assessed for the IUCN Red List, with three Critically Endangered and 27 Endangered plant species recognised in 2004.[48]
One of the most striking of Socotra's plants is the dragon's blood tree (
The island group has a rich fauna, including several endemic species of birds, such as the
As with many isolated island systems, bats are the only mammals native to Socotra. The Socotran pipistrelle (Hypsugo lanzai) is the only species of bat, and mammal in general, thought to be endemic to the island.[52][53] In contrast, the coral reefs of Socotra are diverse, with many endemic species.[49] Socotra is also one of the homes of the brush-footed butterfly Bicyclus anynana.[54]
Over the 2,000 years of human settlement on the islands, the environment has slowly but continuously changed, and, according to Jonathan Kingdon, "the animals and plants that remain represent a degraded fraction of what once existed."[49] The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea states that the island had crocodiles and large lizards, and the present reptilian fauna appears to be greatly diminished since that time. Until a few centuries ago, there were rivers and wetlands on the island, greater stocks of the endemic trees, and abundant pasture. The Portuguese recorded the presence of water buffaloes in the early 17th century. Now there are sand gullies in place of rivers, and many native plants survive only where there is greater moisture or protection from roaming livestock.[49] The remaining Socotran fauna is greatly threatened by goats and other introduced species.
As a result of the 2015 Yemen civil war in mainland Yemen, Socotra became economically isolated, and
UNESCO recognition
The island was recognised by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as a world natural heritage site in July 2008. The European Union has supported such a move, calling on both UNESCO and the International Organisation of Protecting Environment to classify the island archipelago among the major environmental heritages.[9]
Demographics
Most of the inhabitants are indigenous
Almost all inhabitants of Socotra, numbering about 50,000, live on the main island of the archipelago.
Language
The island is home to the
There is an ancient tradition of poetry and a poetry competition is held annually on the island.
Religion
The earliest account concerning the presence of Christians in Socotra stems from the early-medieval 6th century CE Greek merchant Cosmas Indicopleustes[67] Later the Socotrans joined the Assyrian church.[68] During the 10th century, Arab geographer Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani recorded during his visits that most of the islanders were Christian.
Christianity went into decline when the Mahra sultanate took power in the 16th century, and the populace had become mostly Muslim by the time the Portuguese arrived later that century.[69] An 1884 edition of Nature writes that the disappearance of Christian churches and monuments can be accounted for by a Wahhabi excursion to the island in 1800.[70] Today the only remnants of Christianity are some cross engravings from the first century CE, a few Christian tombs, and some church ruins.[71]
Administrative divisions
Previously, the archipelago pertained to the Hadhramaut Governorate. In 2013, however, the archipelago was removed from the Hadramaut Governorate and the Socotra Governorate was created, consisting of the districts of:
- Hidaybu, with a population of 32,285 and a district seat at Hadibu, consisting of the eastern two-thirds of the main island of Socotra;
- Qalansiyah wa 'Abd-al-Kūrī, with a population of 10,557 and a district seat at Qulensya, consisting of the minor islands of the archipelago (the island of 'Abd-al-Kūrī chief among them) and the western third of the main island.
Economy
The primary occupations of the people of Socotra have traditionally been fishing, bee keeping, animal husbandry, and the cultivation of dates.[72] Some residents raise cattle and goats. The chief export products of the island are dates, ghee, tobacco, and fish.[73]
At the end of the 1990s, a
- Local governance support
- Development and implementation of mainstreaming tools
- Strengthening non-governmental organizations' advocacy
- Direction of biodiversity conservation benefits to the local people
- Support to the fisheries sector and training of professionals
Transport
Public transport on Socotra is limited to a few minibuses; car hire usually means hiring a 4WD car and a driver.[77][78] Transport is a delicate matter on Socotra as road construction is considered locally to be detrimental to the island and its ecosystem. In particular, damage has occurred via chemical pollution from road construction while new roads have resulted in habitat fragmentation.[79]
The only port on Socotra is 5 kilometres (3 miles) east of Hadibu. Ships connect the port with the Yemeni coastal city of Mukalla. The journey takes 2–3 days, and the service is used mostly for cargo.[80] The UAE funded the modernization of the port on Socotra.[81]
Tourism
Prior to the construction of the Socotra airport, the island could only be reached by a cargo ship. The ideal time to visit Socotra is from October to April; the remaining months usually have heavy monsoon rainfall, making it difficult for tourists; flights also usually get cancelled.[85] The island lacks any well-established hotels, although there are a few guesthouses for the travelers to stay during their short visits.[86] The island received over 1,000 tourists each year until 2014,[87] which has since been affected by the civil war.
Tourism to the island has increased over the years as many operators have started offering trips to the island, which Gulf Today claimed “will become a dream destination despite the country's conflict”. In May 2021, the Ministry of Information stated that the UAE is violating the island and has been planning to control it for years. It is running illegal trips for foreign tourists without taking any permission from the Yemeni government.[88]
Gallery
-
Qalansiyah
-
Wadi Dirhur canyon on the Diksam Plateau
-
Ar'ar spot
See also
- Galápagos Islands, an archipelago of Ecuador which is also famous for its isolated geography and plant and animal species
- Masirah Island, another island with a rugged terrain off the coast of the Arabian Peninsula
- List of islands of Yemen
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Further reading
- Agafonov, Vladimir (2007). "Temethel as the Brightest Element of Soqotran Folk Poetry". Folia Orientalia. 42/43 (2006/07): 241–249.
- Agafonov, Vladimir (2013). Mehazelo – Cinderella of Socotra. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1482319224.
- Botting, Douglas (2006) [1958]. Island of the Dragon's Blood (2nd ed.). Steve Savage Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-1-904246-21-3.
- Burdick, Alan (25 March 2007). "The Wonder Land of Socotra, Yemen". The New York Times.
- Casson, Lionel (1989). The Periplus Maris Erythraei. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-04060-8.
- Cheung, Catherine; DeVantier, Lyndon (2006). Van Damme, Kay (ed.). Socotra: A Natural History of the Islands and their People. Odyssey Books & Guides. ISBN 978-962-217-770-3.
- Doe, D. Brian (1970). Field, Henry; Laird, Edith M. (eds.). Socotra: An Archaeological Reconnaissance in 1967. Miami: Field Research Projects.
- Doe, D. Brian (1992). Socotra: Island of Tranquility. London: Immel.
- Elie, Serge D. (2004). "Hadiboh: From Peripheral Village to Emerging City". Chroniques Yemenites. 12.
- Elie, Serge D. (November 2006). "Soqotra: South Arabia's Strategic Gateway and Symbolic Playground". British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 33 (2): 131–160. S2CID 129912477.
- Elie, Serge D. (June 2007). The Waning of a Pastoralist Community: An Ethnographic Exploration of Soqotra as a Transitional Social Formation (D.Phil Dissertation thesis). University of Sussex.
- Elie, Serge D. (2008). "The Waning of Soqotra's Pastoral Community: Political Incorporation as Social Transformation". Human Organization. 67 (3): 335–345. .
- Elie, Serge D. (2009). "State-Community Relations in Yemen: Soqotra's Historical Formation as a Sub-National Polity". History and Anthropology. 20 (4): 363–393. S2CID 111387231.
- Elie, Serge D. (2010). "Soqotra: The Historical Formation of a Communal Polity". Chroniques Yéménites. 16 (16): 31–55. doi:10.4000/cy.1766.
- Elie, Serge D. (2012). "Fieldwork in Soqotra: The Formation of a Practitioner's Sensibility". Practicing Anthropology. 34 (2): 30–34. .
- Elie, Serge D. (2012). "Cultural Accommodation to State Incorporation: Language Replacement on Soqotra Island". Journal of Arabian Studies. 2 (1): 39–57. S2CID 144803493.
- Miller, A.G. & Morris, M. (2004) Ethnoflora of the Socotra Archipelago. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh.
- ISBN 978-81-7304-079-5.
- Peutz, Nathalie (2018). Islands of Heritage: Conservation and Transformation in Yemen. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 9781503607156.
- Schoff, Wilfred H. (1974) [1912]. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (2nd. ed.). New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation.
- Zhukov, Valery A. (2014). The Results of Research of the Stone Age Sites in the Island of Socotra (Yemen) in 2008-2012 (in Russian). Moscow: Triada. ISBN 978-5-89282-591-7.
External links
- LA Times photogallery
- Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh: Soqotra's Misty Future (see page 5 for information on dragon's blood)
- Global organisation of Friends for Soqotra in any aspect based in Edinburgh, Scotland
- Audio interview with Socotra resident
- Carter, Mike. "The land that time forgot", The Observer. Sunday, April 16, 2006.
- A Historical Genealogy of Socotra as an Object of Mythical Speculation, Scientific Research & Development Experiment
- SCF Organisation
- An article in T Style Magazine – NYTimes
- "Suḳuṭra" in the Encyclopaedia of Islam
- Socotra Information Project
- "15 Pictures of 'The Most Alien-Looking Place on Earth'"—photo essay
- Socotra: The Hidden Land Archived 8 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine—Documentary film of the Island of Socotra