Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years
World Wars and Interwar era | |||
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1914–1947 | |||
Leader(s) | Robert Borden William Lyon Mackenzie King | ||
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During the World Wars and Interwar Years, 1914–1947, Canada experienced economic gain, more freedom for women, and new technological advancements. There were severe political tensions over issues of war and ethnicity, and heavy military casualties. The Great Depression hit Canada hard, especially in export-oriented mining and farming communities, and in urban factory districts.
World War I
The
On July 29, 1914, Britain warned its colonies to take precautions in case of war. Most recent wars had begun with surprise attacks such as the
Canada was then automatically at war, as she did not yet have control over her foreign policy — not that there were many dissenters.[1] The war was initially popular even among French Canadians, including Henri Bourassa, who historically looked afoul at the British Empire. Liberal leader Wilfrid Laurier created a 'party truce' for as long as Canada was in danger and had those dissenters in the liberal caucus hold their tongues. When asked what Canada 'must do' by the press, Laurier responded "When the call comes, our answer goes at once, and it goes in the classical language of the British answer to the call of duty, 'Ready, aye, ready!'" Prime Minister Robert Borden called a meeting of Parliament on August 18, and without division or significant debate, MPs approved an overseas contingent of 25,000 men with Canada bearing the full cost: a war appropriation of $50 million and a Canadian Patriotic Fund to support the families of men who would fight in Europe. The Cabinet spent many hours trying to devise adequate emergency legislation, resulting in the War Measures Act, decreeing the Cabinet would have the authority to do whatever it deemed necessary for the security, defence, peace, order and welfare of Canada. [citation needed]
In no way was Canada prepared for this scale of war. Its economy could not support it for more than a few months before being hit hard by its cost, as was with other participants. No one expected it to last longer than a few months though, many claiming it would be over by Christmas. Mass recruiting for the war effort began on August 6 with hundreds of telegrams notifying Militia colonel to begin recruiting men between the ages of 18 and 45. Hordes of British immigrants and the unemployed answered the call. Ontario, hard hit by the depression, accounted for third of the recruits, while two thirds of the recruits were British born. Few recruits came from the Maritimes and just over 1,000 were French. The cities of Toronto, Winnipeg and Montreal sent enough men each for two battalions. By September 4 there were 32,000 men and 8,000 horses in camp, far more than had been expected. There was an immediate demand for equipment, uniforms and weapons. The Ross Rifle Company worked overtime as did the textile mills and clothing factories. With a force of 32,000 equipped and ready, it soon became apparent that Embarkation from the docks would be a nightmare. Extra ships had to be chartered to carry the additional men. Battalions were marched on to ships only to be marched back off when they didn't fit. Units ignored orders and schedules and crowded the docks not wishing to wait. When it was all done, the last of 30 ships had cleared the harbour, leaving 863 horses, 4,512 tons of baggage, vehicles and ammunition behind, for which another ship had to be called in to pick up.
The first Canadian casualties of the war occurred before these troops arrived in Europe. Christopher Cradock's squadron was sunk at the Battle of Coronel off the coast of Chile, claiming four midshipmen who became Canada's first war dead. By the time that the First Contingent reached England on October 14 it became apparent the war would not be over by Christmas. Germany's initial rapid successes in Belgium and France had come to halt and both sides were starting to dig into their positions.
Canadians fought at Ypres, the Somme, Passchendaele, and other important battles, originally under British command, but eventually under a unified Canadian command. From a Canadian point of view the most important battle of the war was the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917, during which Canadian troops captured a fortified German hill that had eluded both the British and French. Vimy, as well as the success of the Canadian flying ace Billy Bishop, helped give Canada a new sense of identity. With mounting costs at home, Minister of Finance Thomas White introduced the first income tax in Canada as a "temporary" measure. The lowest bracket was 4% and highest was 25%.
The 620,000 men in service were most remembered for combat in the trenches of the Western Front; there were 67,000 war dead and 173,000 wounded. This total does not include the 2,000 deaths and 9,000 injuries in December 1917 when a munitions ship exploded in Halifax.[2]
The conscription crisis of 1917
After three years of a war that was supposed to have been over in three months, Canada was suffering from a shortage of volunteers. Prime Minister
Halifax Explosion
Halifax, Nova Scotia, was the main staging point for convoys making trans-Atlantic crossings. On December 6, 1917, a Belgian relief ship collided with the SS Mont-Blanc, a French munitions ship in Halifax harbour. The crash set the Mont-Blanc on fire; its holds were full of benzol, picric acid, and TNT. Twenty minutes later it exploded with a force stronger than any man-made explosion before it, destroying most of Halifax and the surrounding towns. Out of a population of 50,000, 1600 people were killed and over 9,000 injured; hundreds were blinded by flying glass. The city was evacuated and dropped out of the war effort, focusing primarily on economic survival.[3]
Post-war society
During the war, the
Labour conflicts
The move from a wartime to a peacetime economy, combined with the unwillingness of returned soldiers to accept pre-war working conditions, led to another crisis. In 1919, the
Politics
Meanwhile, in western Canada, and to some extent in the Maritimes,
Radio
The history of broadcasting in Canada begins in the early 1920s, as Canadians were swept up in the radio craze and built crystal sets to listen to American stations. Main themes in the history include the development of the engineering technology; the construction of stations across the country and the building of networks; the widespread purchase and use of radio and television sets by the general public; debates regarding state versus private ownership of stations; financing of the broadcasts media through the government, licence fees, and advertising; the changing content of the programming; the impact of the programming on Canadian identity; the media's influence on shaping audience responses to music, sports and politics; the role of the Québec government; Francophone versus Anglophone cultural tastes; the role of other ethnic groups and First Nations; and fears of American cultural imperialism via the airwaves. In the late 20th century, Radio was largely overwhelmed by television, but still maintained a niche. In the 21st century, the central question is the impact of the Internet and smartphones on traditional broadcasting media.[6][7]
Most Canadian-owned stations had weak signals compared with American stations. In the 1930s there were 60 Canadian stations but 40% of Canadians could only tune in American stations.[8] Many stations simply rebroadcast American radio shows. Little funding was available for Canadian content. The most notable exceptions were religious radio shows, such as "Back to the Bible Hour," produced by Alberta's premier, William Aberhart, and the increasingly popularity of broadcast hockey games.[9]
Pressure from
The Great Depression
Canada was hard hit by the worldwide Great Depression that began in 1929. Between 1929 and 1933, the gross national product dropped 40% (compared to 37% in the US). Unemployment reached 27% at the depth of the Depression in 1933. Many businesses closed, as corporate profits of $396 million in 1929 turned into losses of $98 million in 1933. Canadian exports shrank by 50% from 1929 to 1933. Construction all but stopped (down 82%, 1929–33), and wholesale prices dropped 30%. Wheat prices plunged from 78c per bushel (1928 crop) to 29c in 1932.[15]
Worst hit were areas dependent on primary industries such as farming, mining and logging, as prices fell and there were few alternative jobs. Most families had moderate losses and little hardship, though they too became pessimistic and their debts become heavier as prices fell. Some families saw most or all of their assets disappear, and suffered severely.
While the decline started in the United States, it quickly spread to Canada. The first industry affected was wheat farming, which saw a collapse in prices. This impoverished the economies of the Prairie provinces, but as wheat was then Canada's largest export it also hurt the rest of the country. With the collapse of the construction industry, lumbering was even worse hit, as there were few alternative jobs in the lumbering region. This was soon followed by a deep recession in manufacturing, first caused by a drop-off in demand in the United States, and then by Canadians also not buying more than bare essentials. The auto industry that prospered so greatly in the 1920s was badly hit. Construction came to a halt. People who lost jobs because of layoffs and closures had a very hard time finding a new ones—especially older men and teenagers. Unemployment rose to 25 per cent.[16]
Government reaction
In 1930 in the first stage of the long depression, Prime Minister
Although the United States began to see rapid improvements as a result of FDR's policies, Canada saw far less growth. Nevertheless, by 1936 the worst of the Depression was over. Mackenzie King implemented some relief programs such as the National Housing Act and National Employment Commission, and also established the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (1936) and Trans-Canada Airlines (1937, the precursor to Air Canada). However, it took until 1939 and the outbreak of war for the Canadian economy to return to 1929 levels.
New parties
The
In
The
The period also saw the rise of the openly fascist
On to Ottawa Trek
The depression had crippled the economy and left one in nine Canadians on relief.
The protest was halted, however, before it could reach the capital. In
Canadian foreign policy in the Interwar Years
Canada played a limited role in world affairs before 1945, typically as a passive follower of British policies.[23] From 1920 Canada was a founding member of the League of Nations and was granted full membership. But the Borden and King governments made it clear that "Canada lived 'in a fireproof house far from flammable materials' and felt no automatic obligation to the principle of collective security".[24] Very much like the United States, after the great war Canada turned away from international politics. Instead, King focused his attention on good relations with the United States and on greater independence from Great Britain, moving into a position of near isolation. Thus, in 1922 King refused to support the British to enforce a peace settlement during the Chanak Crisis, when revolutionary Turkey attacked and drove out the Greeks in Asia Minor. At an Imperial Conference in 1923 it was agreed that no resolution was binding unless approved by each dominion parliament. Canada then for the first time signed a treaty (the 1923 Halibut Treaty with the US) without British participation, and it proceeded to establish its own embassy in Washington. Further steps to independence were the Balfour Declaration of 1926 and the Statute of Westminster in 1931.
Canadians were all the more preoccupied with domestic economic problems and chose to remain neutral throughout the 1930s.
Despite its expressed neutrality, in 1936, Canada began a modest program of rearmament and in 1937, King let Britain know that Canada would support the Empire in case of a war in Europe. He visited Germany in June 1937 and met with
With the rise of
World War II
The Canadian economy, like the economies of many other countries, improved in an unexpected way with the outbreak of the
Military accomplishments
One of Canada's major contributions to the war was the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan, in which over 140,000 Allied pilots and air crews received training at bases in Canada. Canada is widely recognized for its key role in the Battle of the Atlantic. The first major land actions of the war, at Hong Kong and Dieppe, were unsuccessful. The bulk of Canadian land forces remained undeployed until the landings in Sicily and Italy in 1943. In 1944, Canadian forces successfully captured Juno Beach during the Battle of Normandy, and by the autumn, an entire field army under Canadian command was instrumental in liberating the Netherlands, for which many Dutch still fondly remember Canadians today.
Women
Women began to play a more significant part in war efforts, joining the armed forces for the first time (aside from nursing) by means of the Canadian Women's Army Corps, the Royal Canadian Air Force Women's Division, and the Royal Canadian Naval Women's Service (Wrens).[30] Although women were still not allowed to enter combat, they performed a number of other roles in clerical, administrative, and communications divisions. A total of 45,423 women enlisted during the course of the war, and one in nine served overseas.[30][31]
With over a million Canadians serving in the Armed Forces during the war, enormous new employment opportunities appeared for women in workplaces previously unknown to them. To encourage women to work in factories, machine shops, and other heavy industries, the Canadian government offered free child-care and tax breaks. Elsie MacGill, an aeronautical engineer who supervised the production of Hawker Hurricane aircraft for the Canada Car and Foundry Company became a celebrated war hero known as "Queen of the Hurricanes."[32]
Aid to the United Kingdom
The Gander Air Base now known as Gander International Airport built in 1936 in the Dominion of Newfoundland was leased by the UK to Canada for 99 years because of its urgent need for the movement of fighter and bomber aircraft to the UK.[33] Canada gave the United Kingdom gifts totalling $3.5 billion during the war; the UK used it to buy Canadian food and war supplies.[34]
The conscription crisis of 1944
As in World War I, the number of volunteers began to run dry as the war dragged on. Mackenzie King had promised, like Borden, not to introduce conscription, though his position was somewhat ambiguous: as he declared to the House of Commons on June 10, 1942: "Not necessarily conscription but conscription if necessary."
With rising pressure from the people, on June 21, 1940, King passed the National Resources Mobilization Act (NRMA) which gave the government the power to "call out every man in Canada for military training for the defence of Canada", and only Canada. Conscripts could not be sent overseas to fight. English Canadians, expectedly, were displeased and took to calling these soldiers "zombies" who they stereotyped as French Canadians who were "sitting comfortably" while their countrymen died.
On April 27, 1942, Mackenzie King held a national plebiscite to decide on the issue, having made campaign promises to avoid conscription (and, it is thought, winning the election on that very point). The majority of English Canadians voted in favour of the conscription, while the majority of French Canadians did not. Nevertheless, the final result was a yes, which granted King the permission to bring in a conscription law if he wanted. However, the issue was put off for another two years, until November 1944 when King decided on a levy of NRMA troops for overseas service. There were riots in Quebec and a
Some 13,000 NRMA men eventually left Canada, but only 2,463 reached units in the field before the end of the fighting. 69 died in battle. [citation needed]
Japanese internment
When Canada declared war on Japan in December 1941, members of the non-Japanese population of British Columbia, including municipal government offices, local newspapers and businesses called for the internment of the Japanese. In British Columbia, some claimed that Japanese residents who worked in the fishing industry were charting the coastline for the Japanese navy, and many of their boats were confiscated. The pressure from the public was so great that early in 1942 the government gave in to the pressure and began the internment of both Japanese nationals and Japanese Canadian citizens. Most of the nearly 22,000 people of Japanese descent who lived in Canada were naturalized or native-born citizens.[35] Those unwilling to live in internment camps faced the possibility of deportation to Japan.
Unlike
See also
- History of Canadian foreign policy
- Heritage Minutes
- History of Canada
- History of the Canadian Army
- Military history of Canada
References
- )
- ^ War Office, Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire During the Great War 1914–1920 (London, 1922) p. 237
- ISBN 978-1-4668-0510-1.
- ^ Trevor Stace, "Remembering and Forgetting Winnipeg: Making History on the Strike of 1919." Constellations (2014) 5#1 on the historiography of 1919; online Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Donald Campbell Masters, The Winnipeg general strike (University of Toronto Press, 1950) is a scholarly history.
- ^ Robert Armstrong, Broadcasting Policy in Canada (2013)
- ^ Marc Raboy, Missed Opportunities: The Story of Canada's Broadcasting Policy (1990)
- ^ "History of the Canadian Peoples, 1867–present," Alvin Finkel & Margaret Conrad, 1998
- ^ Anne F. MacLennan, "Learning to Listen: Developing the Canadian Radio Audience in the 1930s." Journal of Radio & Audio Media (2013) 20#2 pp: 311-326.
- ^ Mary Vipond, Listening In: The First Decade of Canadian Broadcasting 1922-1932 (McGill-Queen's University Press, 1992)
- ^ Mary Vipond, "One Network or Two? French-Language Programming on the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission, 1932–36," Canadian Historical Review (2008) 89#3 pp: 319-343.
- ^ Elzéar Lavoie, "L'évolution de la radio au Canada français avant 1940." Recherches sociographiques (1971) 12#1 pp: 17-49.
- ^ Pierre Pagé, Histoire de la radio au Québec: information, éducation, culture (Les Editions Fides, 2007)
- ^ Marie-Thérèse Lefebvre, "Analyse de la programmation radiophonique sur les ondes québécoises entre 1922 et 1939: musique, théâtre, causeries." Les Cahiers des dix (2011) 65: 179-225. online[permanent dead link]
- ^ M.C. Urquhart, ed. Historical Statistics of Canada (1965) series F1-F13
- ^ A.E. Safarian, . The Canadian Economy in the Great Depression (1959).
- Neatby, H. BlairWilliam Lyon Mackenzie King, 2:312, 318
- ^ Pierre Berton, The Great Depression, 1929-1939 (1990) pp 54, 70
- ^ Desmond Morton, Working people (1998) p. 139
- ISBN 1-55110-488-1.
- ^ Hoar (Howard), Victor (1969). The Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion: Canadian Participation in the Spanish Civil War. Toronto: Copp Clark.
- ISBN 0-14-015770-0.
- ^ E. J. Tarr, "Canada in World Affairs" International Affairs (1937) 16#5 (1937), pp. 676-697 online
- ^ Brown, Craig in: The Illustrated History of Canada, Toronto, 1987
- ^ Jean, Michaëlle, Governor General of Canada, Speech on the Occasion of the Unveiling of the MacKenzie-Papineau Battalion Monument, Ottawa, October 20, 2001, "Speech on the Occasion of the Unveiling of the MacKenzie-Papineau Battalion Monument". Archived from the original on August 16, 2003. Retrieved August 16, 2003.
- ^ "Canada: A People's History - Teacher Resources: Grades 10-12". History.cbc.ca. Retrieved June 30, 2010.
- ^ a b http://history.cbc.ca/history/webdriver?MIval=EpisContent&series_id=1&episode_id=13&chapter_id=4&page_id=2&lang=E. Retrieved November 14, 2008.
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(help)[dead link] - Granatstein, Jack (September 10, 2009). "Going to war? 'Parliament will decide'". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved September 13, 2009.
- ^ For a review of the historiography see J.L. Granatstein, "'What is to be Done?' The Future of Canadian Second World War History" Canadian Military Journal (2011) 11#2. online Archived August 2, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b 'I'm the proudest girl in the world!' Archived November 12, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, CBC Archives.
- ^ Canadian women serving overseas Archived November 30, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, CBC Archives.
- ^ Canada's own 'Rosie' Archived November 30, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, CBC Archives.
- ^ Stacey, C.P. (1970). Arms, Men and Governments: The War Policies of Canada 1939-1945. University of Michigan. pp. 361, 374, 377.
- ISBN 0-8020-6797-2.
- ^ Japanese Internment Archived December 21, 2008, at the Wayback Machine - CBC
- ^ a b Japanese Canadian Internment Archived June 13, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, University of Washington Libraries
Bibliography
- Allen, Ralph. Ordeal by Fire: Canada, 1910–1945 (1961), 492pp; popular history
- Bothwell, Robert, Ian Drummond, and John English. Canada 1900-1945. University of Toronto Press, 1987, textbook
- Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed. 1922) comprises the 11th edition plus three new volumes 30-31-32 that cover events since 1911 with very thorough coverage of the war as well as every country and colony. Included also in 13th edition (1926) partly online
- Stacey, C. P. Canada and the Age of Conflict: Volume 2: 1921-1948, The Mackenzie King Era (U of Toronto Press, 1981), scholarly history of foreign policy. online
War years
- Armstrong, Elizabeth H. The Crisis of Quebec, 1914-1918 (1937)
- Barker, Stacey, Krista Cooke, and Molly McCullough, eds Material Traces of War: Stories of Canadian Women and Conflict, 1914—1945 (University of Ottawa Press, 2021).
- Broad, Graham. A Small Price to Pay: Consumer Culture on the Canadian Home Front, 1939–45 (2013)
- Broadfoot, Barry. Six War Years 1939-1945: Memories of Canadians at Home and Abroad (1974)
- Bryce, Robert Broughton (2005). Canada and the cost of World War II. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-2938-0.
- Chartrand, René; Volstad, Ronald (2001). Canadian Forces in World War II. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-302-0.
- Ciment, James; Thaddeus Russell (2007). The Home Front Encyclopedia: United States, Britain, and Canada in World Wars I and II. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576078495.
- Cook, Tim. Warlords: Borden, Mackenzie King, and Canada's World Wars (2012) online
- Cook, Tim (1999). No Place to Run: The Canadian Corps and Gas Warfare in the First World War. UBC Press. ISBN 0-7748-0739-3.
- Cook, Tim. "Canada and the Great War." The RUSI Journal (2014) 159#4 pp: 56–64.
- Dickson, Paul. A Thoroughly Canadian General: A Biography of General H.D.G. Crerar (2007)
- Dunmore, Spencer. Wings for Victory: The Remarkable Story of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan in Canada (McClelland & Stewart, 1994), World War II.
- Freeman, Bill; Richard Nielsen (1998). Far from home: Canadians in the First World War. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. ISBN 0-07-086118-8.
- Granatstein, J. L. Canada's War: The Politics of the Mackenzie King Government, 1939-1945 (1990) online
- Granatstein; J. L. The Generals: The Canadian Army's Senior Commanders in the Second World War (University of Calgary Press, 2005) online
- Hayes, Geoffrey, Mike Bechthold and Matt Symes. Canada and the Second World War: Essays in Honour of Terry Copp (2014)
- Henderson, Jarett, and Jeff Keshen. "Introduction: Canadian Perspectives on the First World War." Histoire sociale/Social history (2014) 47#4 pp: 283–290.
- MacKenzie, David, ed. Canada and the First World War (2005), 16 essays by leading scholars
- Moore, Christopher. "1914 in 2014: What We Commemorate When We Commemorate the First World War." Canadian Historical Review (2014) 95#3 pp: 427–432.
- Pierson, Ruth Roach. 'They're still women after all': the Second World War and Canadian Womanhood (1986)
- Perrun, Jody. The Patriotic Consensus: Unity, Morale, and the Second World War in Winnipeg (2014)
- Rickard, John. Politics of Command: Lieutenant-General A.G.L. McNaughton and the Canadian Army, 1939-1943 (2009)
- Stacey, C. P. Arms, Men and Governments: The War Policies of Canada 1939–1945 (1970), the standard scholarly history of WWII policies; online free
- Tennyson, Brian Douglas. Canada's Great War, 1914-1918: How Canada Helped Save the British Empire and Became a North American Nation (2014).
Interwar years
- Archibald, W. Peter. "Distress, dissent and alienation: Hamilton workers in the Great Depression." Urban History Review 21.1 (1992): 3-32. online
- Armstrong, Alex, and Frank D. Lewis. "Transatlantic wage gaps and the migration decision: Europe-Canada in the 1920s." Cliometrica 11.2 (2017): 153+.
- Berton, Pierre. The Great Depression: 1929-1939 (2001) ISBN 0-385-65843-5; popular history; online
- Campbell, Lara A. Respectable Citizens: Gender, Family, and Unemployment in Ontario's Great Depression (U of Toronto Press, 2009).
- Choudhri, Ehsan U., and Lawrence Schembri. "A tale of two countries and two booms, Canada and the United States in the 1920s and the 2000s: The roles of monetary and financial stability policies." International Review of Economics and Finance Working Paper 44_13, (Rimini Centre for Economic Analysis, 2013) online).
- Cotter, Charis. Toronto Between the Wars: Life in the City 1919-1939 (Firefly Books, 2012).
- Graham, Sean. As Canadian as Possible: The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 1936-1939 (2014).
- Guard, Julie. "A mighty power against the cost of living: Canadian housewives organize in the 1930s." International Labor and Working-Class History 77.1 (2010): 27-47. online
- Horn, Michiel. The great depression of the 1930s in Canada (Canadian Historical Association, 1984), 22pp overview online
- Horn, Michiel. The Dirty Thirties (1972) documentary overview.
- Huberman, Michael, and Denise Young. "Hope against hope: strike activity in Canada, 1920–1939." Explorations in Economic History 39.3 (2002): 315-354. online[dead link]
- Light, Beth, and Ruth Roach Pierson, eds. No easy road: Women in Canada 1920s to 1960s (New Hogtown Press, 1990).
- Linteau, Paul-André, et al. Quebec since 1930 (James Lorimer & Company, 1991).
- Mchenry, Dean E. "Saskatchewan Under CCF Rule." in The Third Force in Canada (U of California Press, 2020 pp. 206-264.
- Menkis, Richard, and Harold Troper. More than just games: Canada and the 1936 Olympics (U of Toronto Press, 2015).
- Neatby, H. Blair. The Politics of Chaos: Canada in the Thirties (1972) online broad scholarly survey
- Nicholas, Jane. The Modern Girl: Feminine Modernities, the Body, and Commodities in the 1920s (University of Toronto Press, 2015).
- Safarian, A.E. The Canadian Economy in the Great Depression (1959), a standard history
- Sandemose, Aksel. Aksel Sandemose and Canada: a Scandinavian writer's perception of the Canadian Prairies in the 1920s (2005) online
- Siegfried, André. Canada (1937) wide ranging survey of politics, economics and society. online
- Srigley, Katrina. Breadwinning Daughters: Young Working Women in a Depression-era City, 1929-1939 (U of Toronto Press, 2010).
- Strong-Boag, Veronica. "Pulling in double harness or hauling a double load: Women, work and feminism on the Canadian prairie." Journal of Canadian Studies 21.3 (1986): 32-52.
- Struthers, James. No Fault of Their Own: Unemployment and the Canadian Welfare State, 1914–1941 (U of Toronto Press, 1983).
- Tarr, E. J. "Canada in World Affairs," International Affairs (1937) 16#5 pp. 676–697 in JSTOR
- Taschereau, Sylvie, and Yvan Rousseau. "The Hidden Face of Consumption: Extending Credit to the Urban Masses in Montreal (1920s–40s)." Canadian Historical Review 100.4 (2019): 509-539.
- Vigod, Bernard L. "The Quebec Government and Social Legislation during the 1930s: A Study in Political Self-Destruction." Journal of Canadian Studies 14.1 (1979): 59-69
- Vipond, Mary. "Canadian Nationalism and the Plight of Canadian Magazines in the 1920s." Canadian Historical Review 58.1 (1977): 43-65.
Historiography and memory
- Cook, Tim. "Battles of the Imagined Past: Canada's Great War and Memory." Canadian Historical Review (2014) 95#3 pp: 417–426.
- Granatstein, J.L. "'What is to be Done?' The Future of Canadian Second World War History" Canadian Military Journal (2011) 11+
- Mason, Jody. Writing Unemployment: Worklessness, Mobility, and Citizenship in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literatures (University of Toronto Press, 2017).
- Shaw, Amy. "Expanding the Narrative: A First World War with Women, Children, and Grief," Canadian Historical Review (2014) 95#3 pp 398–406. online
External links
- Canadian Letters & Images Project
- Canadian Newspapers and the Second World War 144,000 newspaper articles
- Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867-1967
- Mugford, Cassandra, and Natalie Fragomeni. "Canada in the 1920s." lesson plans and documents for schools
- WarTime Canada
- "The Confident Years Canada In The 1920s" by Robert J. Bondy/William C. Mattys, illustrations