Eboracum
Leslie Peter Wenham |
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Eboracum (
Two Roman emperors died in Eboracum: Septimius Severus in 211 AD, and Constantius Chlorus in 306 AD.
Etymology
The first known recorded mention of Eboracum by name is dated c. 95–104 AD, and is an address containing the genitive form of the settlement's name, Eburaci, on a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda in what is now the modern Northumberland.[1] During the Roman period, the name was written both Eboracum and Eburacum (in nominative form).[1]
The name Eboracum comes from the
Peter Schrijver has instead counter-argued that "eburos did not mean yew tree" and that the derivation from Latin ebur (ivory) instead refers to boar's tusks.[6]
Origins
The
A legion at full strength at that time numbered some 5,500 men, and provided new trading opportunities for enterprising local people, who doubtless flocked to Eboracum to take advantage of them. As a result, permanent civilian settlement grew up around the fortress especially on its south-east side. Civilians also settled on the opposite side of the Ouse, initially along the main road from Eboracum to the south-west. By the later 2nd century, growth was rapid; streets were laid out, public buildings were erected and private houses spread out over terraces on the steep slopes above the river.
Military
From its foundation the
The layout of the fortress also followed the standard for a legionary fortress, with wooden buildings inside a square defensive boundary.
Multiple phases of restructuring and rebuilding within the fortress are recorded. Rebuilding in stone began in the early second century AD under Trajan, but may have taken as long as the start of the reign of Septimius Severus to be completed; a period of over 100 years.[16] Estimates suggest that over 48,000 m3 of stone were required,[16] largely consisting of Magnesian Limestone from the quarries near the Roman settlement of Calcaria (Tadcaster).[17]
Visiting emperors
There is evidence that the Emperor
In the later 3rd century, the western Empire experienced political and economic turmoil and Britain was for some time ruled by usurpers independent of Rome. It was after crushing the last of these that Emperor
Government
For the Romans, Eboracum was the major military base in the north of Britain and, following the 3rd century division of the province of Britannia, the capital of northern Britain, Britannia Inferior. By 237 Eboracum had been made a colonia, the highest legal status a Roman city could attain, one of only four in Britain and the others were founded for retired soldiers.[21] This mark of Imperial favour was probably a recognition of Eboracum as the largest town in the north and the capital of Britannia Inferior. At around the same time Eboracum became self-governing, with a council made up of rich locals, including merchants and veteran soldiers.[22] In 296 Britannia Inferior was divided into two provinces of equal status with Eboracum becoming the provincial capital of Britannia Secunda.
Culture
As a busy
Diet
Substantial evidence for the use of cereal crops and animal husbandry can be found in Eboracum.[24] A first-century warehouse fire from Coney Street, on the North bank of the Ouse and outside the fortress, showed that spelt wheat was the most common cereal grain used at that time, followed by barley.[24] Cattle, sheep/goat and pig are the major sources of meat.[24] Hunting scenes, as shown through Romano-British "hunt cups",[25] suggest hunting was a popular pastime and that diet would be supplemented through the hunting of hare, deer and boar. A variety of food preparation vessels (mortaria) have been excavated from the city[25] and large millstones used in the processing of cereals have been found in rural sites outside the colonia at Heslington and Stamford Bridge.[24]
In terms of the ceremonial use of food; dining scenes are used on tombstones to represent an aspirational image of the deceased in the afterlife, reclining on a couch and being served food and wine.[26] The tombstones of Julia Velva, Mantinia Maercia and Aelia Aeliana each depict a dining scene.[26] Additionally, several inhumation burials from Trentholme Drive contained hen's eggs placed in ceramic urns as grave goods for the deceased.[27]
Religion
A range of evidence of
There was also a
Death and burial
The cemeteries of Roman York follow the major
An excavation in advance of building work underneath the Yorkshire Museum in 2010 located a male skeleton with significant pathology to suggest that he may have died as a gladiator in Eboracum.[44][45]
Economy
The
In the
Roads
The true paths of all original
Rivers
The River Ouse and River Foss provided important access points for the importation of heavy goods. The existence of two possible wharves on the east bank of the River Foss[50] support this idea. A large deposit of grain, in a timber structure beneath modern-day Coney Street, on the north-east bank of the River Ouse[51] suggests the existence of storehouses for moving goods via the river.
Late Roman York
The decline of Roman Britain in early fifth century AD led to significant social and economic changes all over Britain. Whilst the latest datable inscription referencing Eboracum dates from 237 AD, the continuation of the settlement after this time is certain.[52] Building work in the city continued in the fourth century under Constantine and later Count Theodosius.[52] The locally produced Crambeck Ware pottery[53] arrives in Eboracum in the fourth century—the most famous form being intricately decorated buff-yellow "parchment ware" painted with bright shades of red. The effect of Constantine's religious policy allowed the greater development of Christianity in Roman Britain—a bishop of York named "Eborius" is attested here and several artifacts decorated with chi-rho symbols are known.[52] Additionally, a small bone plaque from an inhumation grave bore the phrase SOROR AVE VIVAS IN DEO ("Hail sister may you live in God").[54]
Changes in the layout of both the fort and colonia occurred in the late fourth century AD, suggested as representing a social change in the domestic lives of the military garrison here whereby they might have lived in smaller family groups with wives, children or other civilians.[52]
Rediscovery of Roman York
The rediscovery and modern understanding of Eboracum began in the 17th century. Several prominent figures have been involved in this process. Martin Lister was the first to recognise that the Multangular Tower was Roman in date in a 1683 paper with the Royal Society.[55] John Horsley's 1732 Britannia Romana, or "The Roman Antiquities of Britain", included a chapter on Roman York and at least partly informed Francis Drake's 1736 Eboracum[56]—the first book of its kind on Roman York. Drake also published accounts in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.[50]
The Rev. Charles Wellbeloved was one of the founders of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society and a curator of the antiquities in the Yorkshire Museum until his death in 1858. He published a systematic account of Roman York titled Eboracum or York under the Romans in 1842,[50] including first hand records of discoveries during excavations in 1835.[50] William Hargrove brought many new discoveries to the attention of the public through published articles in his newspaper the Herald and the Courant[50] and published a series of guides with references to casual finds.
The first large-scale excavations were undertaken by S. Miller from
Archaeological remains
Substantial physical remains have been excavated in York in the last two centuries[57] including the city walls, the legionary bath-house and headquarters building, civilian houses, workshops, storehouses and cemeteries.
Visible remains
- Remains of the Roman Basilica building, at the north side of the Principia are visible in the undercroft of York Minster. A column found during excavations and a modern statue of Constantine the Great are located outside.[58]
- The multangular tower of York city walls is a multi-period structure based on the south-west corner tower of the Roman Legionary Fortress. It is within the York Museum Gardens.
- The Roman Bath pub and museum (St Sampson's Square) displays remains of the military bath-house.[59]
- A fragment of foundations of the western curtain wall is visible through a glass floor in a cafe near Bootham bar.[60]
- A large number of Roman finds are now housed in the Yorkshire Museum.[61] The York Museum Gardens have Roman sarcophagi on open display.
See also
- History of York
- Roman Britain
- Seal of New York City which is inscribed Sigillum Civitatis Novi Eboraci
Bibliography
- Allason-Jones, Lindsay (1996). Roman Jet in the Yorkshire Museum. York: Yorkshire Museum. ISBN 9780905807171.
- Baines, Edward, ed. (1823). History, directory & gazetteer, of the county of York, Vol. II. Leeds: Leeds Mercury Office. Retrieved 15 January 2018 – via archive.org.
- Collingwood, R.G., ed. (1965). Roman Inscriptions of Britain, Vol I. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- LCCN 03016196.
- Groom, N. (1981). Frankincense and Myrrh: a Study of the Arabian Incense Trade. Longman. ISBN 9780582764767.
- Hall, Richard (1996) [1996]. English Heritage: Book of York (1st ed.). ISBN 0-7134-7720-2.
- Hartley, Elizabeth (1985). Roman Life at the Yorkshire Museum. The Yorkshire Museum. ISBN 0-905807-02-2.
- Nègre, Ernest (1990). Toponymie générale de la France (in French). Librairie Droz. ISBN 9782600028837.
- ISBN 9781906259334.
- Ottaway, Patrick (2004). Roman York. Stroud: Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-2916-7.
- RCHME (1962). An Inventory of the Historical Monuments in City of York, Volume 1, Eburacum, Roman York (Royal Commission on Historical Monuments England) – via British History Online.
- Wellbeloved, c. 1852 (1st edition). A descriptive account of the antiquities in the grounds and in the Museum of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society
- Willis, Ronald (1988). The illustrated portrait of York (4th ed.). Robert Hale Limited. ISBN 0-7090-3468-7.
References
- ^ a b Hall 1996, p. 13
- King David, was an invention of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae.
- ^ a b Xavier Delamarre, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise, éditions errance 2003, p. 159.
- ^ Nègre 1990, p. 213
- ^ Nègre 1990, p. 212
- ^ Peter Schrijver (2015). "The meaning of Celtic *eburos". In G. Oudaer; G. Hily; H. le Bihan (eds.). Mélanges en l'honneur de Pierre-Yves Lambert. pp. 65–76.
- ^ Willis 1988, pp. 16–17
- ^ Hall 1996, pp. 26–28
- ^ a b c Ottaway 2004, pp. 34–37
- ^ Wenham, L. P. (1961). "Excavations and discoveries adjoining the south-west wall of the Roman legionary fortress in Feasegate, York, 1955–57". Yorkshire Archaeological Journal. 40: 329–50.
- ^ Wenham, L. P. (1962). "Excavations and discoveries within the Legionary Fortress in Davygate, York, 1955–58". Yorkshire Archaeological Journal. 40: 507–87.
- ^ Wenham, L. P. 1965 'The South-West defences of the Fortress of Eboracum' in Jarrett, M. G. and Dobson, B. (eds.) Britain and Rome. pp. 1–26
- ^ Hall 1996, pp. 27–28
- ^ Willis 1988, pp. 19–22
- ^ a b Haverfield, Francis John (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). p. 844.
- ^ a b Ottaway 2004, pp. 67–69
- ^ Historic England (2007). "Calcaria Roman Town (54930)". Research records (formerly PastScape). Retrieved 15 March 2014.
- ^ a b c d Ottaway 2004, pp. 79–81
- ^ Dio, Cassius. Historia Romana 76.15.2
- ^ Baines 1823, p. 15
- ^ a b Hall 1996, p. 31
- ^ Hartley 1985, p. 12
- ^ Hartley 1985, p. 14
- ^ a b c d Ottaway 2013, pp. 137–140
- ^ a b Monaghan, J. 1993. Roman Pottery from the Fortress (Archaeology of York 16/7). York: York Archaeological Trust
- ^ S2CID 160765733.
- ^ RCHME 1962, p. 106
- ^ RCHME 1962, p. 118a
- ^ Hall 1996, pp. 97–101
- ^ RCHME 1962, p. 55
- ^ Ottaway 2004, pp. 114–115
- ^ Hartley 1985, p. 25
- ^ a b RCHME 1962, pp. 113a–b
- ^ RCHME 1962, p. 120b
- ^ RCHME 1962, p. 116a
- ^ Hall 1996, pp. 97–101
- ^ "Ancient See of York". New Advent. 2007. Retrieved 25 October 2007.
- ^ a b c d RCHME 1962, p. 67
- ^ RCHME 1962, pp. 76–80
- ^ Collingwood 1965, p. Ref:674
- ^ Collingwood 1965, p. Ref:687
- ^ hdl:10454/8763.
- ^ Groom 1981
- ^ Past Horizons (9 December 2010). "Roman Gladiator Beneath Yorkshire Museum". Archived from the original on 5 April 2014. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
- ^ "Roman gladiator skeleton found beneath Yorkshire Museum". York Press. 10 December 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
- ^ a b Allason-Jones 1996
- ^ Ottaway 2004, p. 107
- ^ Allason-Jones 1996, p. 25
- ^ a b c d RCHME 1962, pp. 1–4
- ^ a b c d e f RCHME 1962, pp. 64–65
- ^ Ottaway 2004, p. 54
- ^ a b c d Ottaway 2004, pp. 140–150
- ^ Potsherd (1996). "Crambeck Ware Pottery". Retrieved 13 December 2013.
- ^ York Museums Trust (2006). "Ivory Bangle Lady". Archived from the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
- ^ Lidster, M. 1683. 'Some Observations upon the Ruins of a Roman Wall and Multangular-Tower at York'. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Vol 13. pp. 238–242.
- ^ RCHME 1962, pp. xxxix–xli
- ^ RCHME 1962, pp. xvii–xix
- )
- ^ "Roman Bath Museum". 2013. Archived from the original on 4 November 2013. Retrieved 31 October 2013.
- York Press. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
- ^ "Collections Highlights: Archaeology". York Museums Trust. 2018. Retrieved 18 January 2018.