Ergot
Ergot | |
---|---|
Claviceps purpurea | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Fungi |
Division: | Ascomycota |
Class: | Sordariomycetes |
Order: | Hypocreales |
Family: | Clavicipitaceae |
Genus: | Claviceps , 1853
Tul. |
Species | |
About 50, including: |
Ergot (/ˈɜːrɡət/ UR-gət) or ergot fungi refers to a group of fungi of the genus Claviceps.[1]
The most prominent member of this group is Claviceps purpurea ("rye ergot fungus"). This fungus grows on rye and related plants, and produces alkaloids that can cause ergotism in humans and other mammals who consume grains contaminated with its fruiting structure (called ergot sclerotium).[2][3]
Claviceps includes about 50 known species, mostly in the tropical regions. Economically significant species include C. purpurea (parasitic on
C. purpurea has at least three races or varieties, which differ in their host specificity:[6]
- G1 — land grasses of open meadows and fields;
- G2 — grasses from moist, forest, and mountain habitats;
- G3 (C. purpurea var. spartinae) — salt marsh grasses (Spartina, Distichlis).
Life cycle
An ergot kernel, called a sclerotium, develops when a
Claviceps species from tropic and subtropic regions produce macro- and
When a mature sclerotium drops to the ground, the fungus remains dormant until proper conditions (such as the onset of spring or a rain period) trigger its fruiting phase. It germinates, forming one or several
Ergot infection causes a reduction in the yield and quality of grain and hay, and if livestock eat infected grain or hay it may cause a disease called ergotism. Black and protruding sclerotia of C. purpurea are well known. However, many tropical ergots have brown or greyish sclerotia, mimicking the shape of the host seed. For this reason, the infection is often overlooked.
Insects, including flies and moths, carry conidia of Claviceps species, but it is unknown whether insects play a role in spreading the fungus from infected to healthy plants.[7]
Evolution
Regarding the evolution of plant parasitism in the
Several evolutionary processes have acted to diversify the array of ergot alkaloids produced by fungi; these differences in enzyme activities are evident at the levels of substrate specificity (LpsA), product specification (EasA, CloA) or both (EasG and possibly CloA).[10] The "old yellow enzyme", EasA, presents an outstanding example. This enzyme catalyzes reduction of the C8=C9 double-bond in chanoclavine I, but EasA isoforms differ in whether they subsequently catalyze reoxidation of C8–C9 after rotation.[10] This difference distinguishes most Clavicipitaceae from Trichocomaceae, but in Clavicipitaceae it is also the key difference dividing the branch of classical ergot alkaloids from dihydroergot alkaloids, the latter often being preferred for pharmaceuticals due to their relatively few side effects.[10]Effects on humans, other mammals and LSD
The ergot sclerotium contains high concentrations (up to 2% of dry mass) of the alkaloid ergotamine, a complex molecule consisting of a tripeptide-derived cyclol-lactam ring connected via amide linkage to a lysergic acid (ergoline) moiety, and other alkaloids of the ergoline group that are biosynthesized by the fungus.[11] Ergot alkaloids have a wide range of biological activities including effects on circulation and neurotransmission.[12]
Ergot alkaloids are classified as:
- derivatives of 6,8-dimethylergoline and
- lysergic acid derivatives.[13]
The neurotropic activities of the ergot alkaloids may also cause
In addition to ergot alkaloids, Claviceps paspali also produces tremorgens (paspalitrem) causing "paspalum staggers" in cattle.[20] The fungi of the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus also produce ergot alkaloids, notably some isolates of the human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus,[21] and have been isolated from plants in the family Convolvulaceae, of which morning glory is best known. The causative agents of most ergot poisonings are the ergot alkaloid class of fungal metabolites, though some ergot fungi produce distantly related indole-diterpene alkaloids that are tremorgenic.[10]
Ergot does not contain
The January 4, 2007 issue of the
History
Ergotism is the earliest recorded example of mycotoxicosis, or poisoning caused by toxic molds.[24] Early references to ergotism date back as far as 600 BC, an Assyrian tablet referred to it as a "noxious pustule in the ear of grain."[25] In 350 BC, the Parsees described "noxious grasses that cause pregnant women to drop the womb and die in childbed."[25] In ancient Syria, ergot was called "Daughter of Blood."[26] Radulf Glaber described an ailment he called "hidden fire," or ignus ocultus, in which a burning of the limb is followed by its separation from the body, often consuming the victim in one night.[26] In 1588, Johannes Thallius wrote that it is called "Mother of Rye," or rockenmutter, and is used to halt bleeding.[26]
Human poisoning due to the consumption of rye bread made from ergot-infected grain was common in Europe in the Middle Ages. The first mention of a plague of gangrenous ergotism in Europe comes from Germany in 857; following this, France and Scandinavia experienced similar outbreaks;[27] England is noticeably absent from the historical regions affected by ergotism as its main source of food was wheat, which is resistant to ergot fungi.[26] In 994, a massive outbreak of potentially attributed to ergotism caused 40,000 deaths in the regions of Aquitaine, Limousin, Périgord, and Angoumois in France.[24] In Hesse, in 1596, Wendelin Thelius was one of the first to attribute ergotism poisoning to grain.[27] In 1778, S. Tessier, observing a huge epidemic in Sologne, France, in which more than 8,000 people died, recommended drainage of fields, compulsory cleaning of grain, and the substitution of potatoes for affected grain.[27]
In 1722, the
Some historical events, such as the Great Fear in France at the outset of the French Revolution, have been linked to ergot poisoning.[28]
Saint Anthony's fire and the Antonites
The Order of St. Anthony, whose members were known as Antonites, grew quickly, and hospitals spread through France, Germany, and Scandinavia and gained wealth and power as grateful patrons bestowed money and charitable goods on the hospitals.
An important aspect to the Order of St. Anthony's treatment practices was the exclusion of rye bread and other ergot-containing edibles, which halted the progression of ergotism.
Usage in gynaecology and obstetrics
Midwives and very few doctors in Europe have used extracts from ergot for centuries:
- In a Nürnberg manuscript of 1474 powdered ergot was prescribed together with Laurel-fruits and rhizomes of Salomon's seals to cure permutter or heffmutter, which refers to pain in the lower abdomen caused by 'uprising of the womb'[30]
- In a printed book of 1582 the German physician Adam Lonicer wrote, that three sclerotia of ergot, used several times a day, were used by midwives as a good remedy in case of the "uprising and pain of the womb" (auffſteigen vnd wehethumb der mutter)[31]
- Joachim Camerarius the Younger wrote in 1586, that sclerotia of ergot held under the tongue, would stop bleeding[32]
To prove that ergot is a harmless sort of grain, in 1774 the French pharmacist Antoine-Augustin Parmentier edited a letter he had received from Madame Dupile, a midwife of Chaumont-en-Vexin. She had told him that if uterine contractions were too weak in the expulsion stage of childbirth, she and her mother gave peeled ergot in an amount of the filling of a thimble dispersed in water, wine or broth. The administration of ergot was followed by a mild childbirth within 15 minutes.[33] The French physician Jean-Baptiste Desgranges (1751–1831) published in 1818, that in 1777 he had met midwives in Lyon, who successfully treated feeble uterine contractions by administering the powder of ergot. Desgranges added this remedy to his therapeutic arsenal. From 1777 to 1804 he was successful in alleviating childbirth for more than twenty women by the administration of the powder of ergot. He never saw any side-effect of this treatment.[34]
In the
The 1836 Dispensatory of the United States recommended "to a woman in labour fifteen or twenty grains [ca. 1 to 1,3g] of ergot in powder to be repeated every twenty minutes, till its peculiar effects are experienced, or till the amount of a drachm [ca. 3,9g] has been taken".[37]
In 1837 the French Codex Pharmacopee Francaise required ergot to be kept in all pharmacies.[38]
Low to very low evidence from clinical trials suggests that prophylactic use of ergot alkaloids, administered by intravenous (IV) or intramuscular (IM) in the third stage of labor, may reduce blood loss and may reduce the risk of moderate to severe hemorrhage following delivery, however this medication may also be associated with higher blood pressure and higher pain.[39] It is not clear if oral ergot alkaloids are beneficial or harmful as they have not been well studied.[39] A 2018 Cochrane Systematic Review concluded that other medications such as oxytocin, syntometrine and prostaglandins, may be preferred over ergot alkaloids.[39]
Though ergot was known to cause abortions in cattle and humans, this was not a recognized use for it as abortion was illegal in most countries, thus evidence for its use in abortion is unknown.[24] Most often, ergot was used to speed the process of parturition or delivery, and was not used for the purpose of halting postpartum bleeding, which is a concern of childbirth.[27] However, until anesthesia became available, there was no antidote or way of controlling the effects of ergot. So if the fetus did not move as expected, the drug could cause the uterus to mold itself around the child, rupturing the uterus and killing the child. David Hosack, an American physician, noted the large number of stillbirths resulting from ergot use and stated that rather than pulvis ad partum, it should be called pulvis ad mortem.[27] He began advocating for its use to halt postpartum bleeding. Eventually, doctors determined that the use of ergot in childbirth without an antidote was too dangerous. They ultimately restricted its use to expelling the placenta or stopping hemorrhage. Not only did it constrict the uterus, ergot had the ability to increase or decrease blood pressure, induce hypothermia and emesis, and influence pituitary hormone secretions.[24] In 1926, Swiss psychiatrist Hans Maier suggested to use ergotamine for the treatment of vascular headaches of the migraine type.[16]
In the 1930s, abortifacient drugs were marketed to women by various companies under various names such as Molex pills and Cote pills. Since birth control devices and abortifacients were illegal to market and sell at the time, they were offered to women who were "delayed". The recommended dosage was seven grains of ergotin a day. According to the United States Federal Trade Commission (FTC)[40] these pills contained ergotin, aloes, Black Hellebore, and other substances. The efficacy and safety of these pills are unknown. The FTC deemed them unsafe and ineffective and demanded that they cease and desist selling the product. Currently, over a thousand compounds have been derived from ergot ingredients.[16]
Speculated cause of hysterics and hallucinations
It has been posited that
An article appearing in the July 23, 1881 edition of
British author John Grigsby contends that the presence of ergot in the stomachs of some of the so-called 'bog-bodies' (
Linnda R. Caporael posited in 1976 that the hysterical symptoms of young women that had spurred the Salem witch trials had been the result of consuming ergot-tainted rye.[45] However, Nicholas P. Spanos and Jack Gottlieb, after a review of the historical and medical evidence, later disputed her conclusions.[46] Other authors have likewise cast doubt on ergotism as the cause of the Salem witch trials.[47]
Claviceps purpurea
Mankind has known about Claviceps purpurea for a long time, and its appearance has been linked to extremely cold winters that were followed by rainy summers.[citation needed]
The sclerotial stage of C. purpurea conspicuous on the heads of ryes and other such grains is known as ergot. Favorable temperatures for growth are in the range of 18–30 °C. Temperatures above 37 °C cause rapid germination of
Claviceps africana
Claviceps africana infects
In Sorghum this honeydew can be spotted coming out of head flowers. A whitish sticky substance can also be observed on leaves and on the ground.[48]
C. africana caused ergot disease that caused a famine in 1903-1906 in Northern Cameroon, West Africa, and also occurs in eastern and southern Africa, especially Zimbabwe and South Africa. Male sterile sorghums (also referred to as A-lines) are especially susceptible to infection, as first recognized in the 1960s, and massive losses in seed yield have been noted. Infection is associated with cold night temperatures that are below 12 °C occurring two to three weeks before flowering.[citation needed]
Sorghum ergot caused by Claviceps africana Frederickson, Mantle and De Milliano is widespread in all sorghum growing areas, whereas the species was formerly restricted to Africa and Asia where it was first recorded more than 90 years ago, it has been spreading rapidly and by the mid-1990s it reached Brazil, South Africa, and Australia. By 1997, the disease had spread to most South American countries and the Caribbean including Mexico, and by 1997 had reached Texas in the United States.[16]
Management
Partners of the
Claviceps paspali
Claviceps paspali infects wild grasses and could be found on the common grass Paspalum. Like the C. africana, C. paspali also secretes honeydew which is consumed by bees. The bees then create a honey called fic'e (Paraguayan Makai Indian language), which is infused with secretions from the plants and has a pungent aroma. If consumed in high amounts, the honey can cause drunkenness, dizziness and even death.[49]
See also
- Medicinal mushrooms
- Universal Laboratories Building: a major producer of ergot
Sources
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA (license statement/permission). Text taken from PMDG: Ergot sugary disease in sorghum, Chanda Bwalya, CABI.
References
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- ^ Sylvie Pazoutova. "Intraspecific variability of C. purpurea". Archived from the original on 2006-03-10.[self-published source?]
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- ^ Poinar Jr., G.; Alderman, S.; Wunderlich, J. (2015). "One hundred million year old ergot: psychotropic compounds in the Cretaceous?" (PDF). Palaeodiversity. 8.
- ^ "100-Million-Year-Old Burmese Amber Preserves Fungus-Infected Grass". sci-news.com. 10 February 2020. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
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- ^ S2CID 847027.
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- ^ "St. Anthony's Fire — Ergotism". MedicineNet. 2002.
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- ^ Cod. Pal. germ. 545, Blatt 70v (Digitalisat)
- ^ Adam Lonitzer. Kreuterbuch ... Egenolff, Frankfurt 1582, Blatt CCLXXXVr (Digital link). In the 1578 edition (Digitalisat) ergot is not mentioned.
- ^ Herbal of Pietro Andrea Mattioli enlarged by J. Camerarius. Frankfurt am Main 1586, page 109-, (Digitalisat)
- ^ Journal de Physique, 1774, S. 144–155 (Digitalisat)
- ^ Jean-Baptiste Desgranges (1751–1831). Sur la propriété qu'a le Seigle ergoté d'accélérer la marche de l'accouchement, et de hâter sa terminaison. In: Nouveau Journal de Médecine, Paris, I (1818), S. 54–61 (Digitalisat)
- ^ John Stearns. Account of the Pulvis Parturiens, a remedy for quickening child-birth. In: The Medical Repository, New York, second hexade, vol. 5 (1808), p. 308–309 (Digitalisat)
- ^ John Stearns. Account of the Pulvis Parturiens, a remedy for quickening child-birth. In: The Medical Repository, New York, second hexade, vol. 5 (1808), p. 308–309 (Digitalisat)
- ^ The Dispensatory of the United States of America, third edition Philadelphia 1836, p. 588 (Digitalisat)
- ^ Codex, pharmacopée française 1837, p. 215 : Poudre de seigle ergoté (Digitalisat)
- ^ PMID 29879293.
- ^ Federal Trade Commission (1941). "Federal Trade Commission Decisions". Federal Trade Commission Decisions. 30: 800.
- ^ "Mixing the Kykeon" (PDF). ELEUSIS: Journal of Psychoactive Plants and Compounds. New Series 4. 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-07-20. Retrieved 2008-07-31.
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- ^ Scientific American. Munn & Company. 1881-07-23. p. 51.
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- ^ "Claviceps - The Genera and Species from A to Z - The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications". doctorlib.info. Retrieved 2020-05-18.
External links
- Claviceps purpurea - Ergot Alkaloid
- Ergot article from North Dakota State University, 2002
- Panaccione DG, Coyle CM (June 2005). "Abundant respirable ergot alkaloids from the common airborne fungus Aspergillus fumigatus". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 71 (6): 3106–11. PMID 15933008.
- PBS Secrets of the Dead: "The Witches Curse" (concerning the Salem trials and ergot)
- Parkinson's Drugs Can Damage Heart Valves. HealthDay. January 3, 2007.
- McCrea A (January 1931). "The Reactions of Claviceps purpurea to Variations of Environment" (PDF). American Journal of Botany. 18 (1): 50–78. JSTOR 2435724.
- Bonns WW (July 1922). "A Preliminary Study of Claviceps purpurea in Culture". American Journal of Botany. 9 (7): 339–353. JSTOR 2435269.
- Woodcock EF (February 1925). "Observations on the Poisonous Plants of Michigan". American Journal of Botany. 12 (2): 116–131. JSTOR 2435398.
- Prom LK, Lopez JD (2004). "Viability of Claviceps africana Spores Ingested by Adult Corn Earworm Moths, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)". Journal of Economic Entomology. 97 (3): 764–7. S2CID 2871861.
- Pažoutová S, Frederickson DE (December 2005). "Genetic diversity of Claviceps africana on sorghum and Hyparrhenia". Plant Pathology. 54 (6): 749–763. .
- Frederickson DE, Mantle PG, De Milliano WA (June 1993). "Windborne spread of ergot disease (Claviceps africana) in sorghum A-lines in Zimbabwe" (PDF). Plant Pathology. 42 (3): 368–377. .