Galicians

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Not to be confused with the people of the eastern European region of Galicia.

Galicians
Galegos
Galician bagpipers
Total population
c. 3.2 million[1]
Regions with significant populations
           Spain 2,752,676[2][3]
           Galicia 2,397,6132,397,613[2][3]
          Province of A Coruña991,588[2][3]
          Province of Pontevedra833,205[2][3]
          Province of Lugo300,419[2][3]
          Province of Ourense272,401[2][3]
 Spain (excluding Galicia)355,063[2][3]
 Argentina147,062[4]
 Venezuela38,440–46,882[4][5]
 Brazil38,554[4]
 Uruguay35,369[4]
 Cuba31,077[4]
  Switzerland30,737[4]
 France16,075[4]
 United States14,172[4]
 Germany13,305[4]
 United Kingdom10,755[4]
 Mexico9,895[4]
Galicians inscribed in the electoral census and living abroad combined (2013)414,650[4]
Languages
Galician, Spanish
Religion
Roman Catholicism[6]
Related ethnic groups
Portuguese (particularly Norte), Asturians, Leonese people, other Spaniards, modern Celts

Galicians (

Romance-speaking European ethnic group [7] from northwestern Spain; they are closely related to the northern Portuguese people[8] and has its historic homeland in Galicia, in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula.[9] Two Romance languages are widely spoken and official in Galicia: the native Galician and Spanish.[10]

Etymology

Castro culture carved stones

The

Douro River valley in the south to the Cantabrian Sea in the north and west to the Navia River. That encompassed such tribes as the Celtici, the Artabri, the Lemavi and the Albiones
.

The oldest known inscription referring to the Gallaeci (reading Ἔθνο[υς] Καλλαικῶ[ν], "people of the Gallaeci") was found in 1981 in the

Sebasteion of Aphrodisias, Turkey; a triumphal monument to Roman Emperor Augustus mentions them among other 15 nations that he conquered.[15]

The etymology of the name has been studied since the 7th century by authors such as

Proto-Celtic *kallī- 'forest' and so means 'the forest (people)'.[17]

Another recent proposal comes from the linguist

Proto-Indo-European root *kal- "hard hardness" (perhaps via suffixed zero-grade *kl̥H-no-(m)). For instance, in Latin callum "hard or thick substance" is also found and so both E. Rivas and Juan J. Moralejo relate the toponym Gallaecia / Callaecia with the Latin word callus.[23]

Languages

Galician

Main article: Galician language
A comparative map of Galicia showing speakers of Galician as first language in 2001 and 2011, Galician Institute of Statistics.
La Romería (the pilgrimage), Sorolla, 1915

Galician is a

Galicia. Galician is also spoken in the neighbouring autonomous communities of Asturias and Castile and León, near their borders with Galicia.[24]

Medieval or Old Galician, also known by linguists as

Castille under the same sovereign) and Portugal. The Galician-Portuguese language developed a rich literary tradition from the last years of the 12th century. During the 13th century it gradually replaced Latin as the language used in public and private charters, deeds, and legal documents, in Galicia, Portugal, and in the neighbouring regions in Asturias and Leon.[25]

Galician-Portuguese diverged into two linguistic varieties – Galician and Portuguese – from the 15th century on. Galician became a regional spoken language under the influence of Castilian Spanish, while Portuguese became the international one, as language of the Portuguese Empire. The two varieties are still close together, and in particular northern Portuguese dialects share an important number of similarities with Galician ones.[25]

The official institution regulating the Galician language, backed by the Galician government and universities, the Royal Galician Academy, claims that modern Galician must be considered an independent Romance language belonging to the group of Ibero-Romance languages and having strong ties with Portuguese and its northern dialects.

However, the

Reintegrationist
movement, support the idea that differences between Galician and Portuguese speech are not enough to justify considering them as separate languages: Galician is simply one variety of Galician-Portuguese, along with European Portuguese, Brazilian Portuguese, African Portuguese, the Galician-Portuguese still spoken in Spanish Extremadura, (Fala), and other variations.

Nowadays, despite the positive effects of official recognition of the Galician language, Galicia's socio-linguistic development has experienced the growing influence of Spanish and persistent linguistic erosion of Galician due to the media as well as legal imposition of Spanish in learning.

Galicia also boasts a rich oral tradition, in the form of songs, tales, and sayings, which has made a vital contribution to the spread and development of the Galician language. Still flourishing today, this tradition shares much with that of Portugal.

Surnames

See also:
Castilianization and Surname

Galician surnames,

Michaelici, equivalent to Michaels); Páez, Pais, Paz (from Pelagici, Pelagio); Ramírez; Reimúndez (Raymond); Rodríguez; Sánchez; Sueiro (from Suarius); Tomé (from Thomas); Viéitez, Vieites (Benedictici, Benedict
), among many others.

Because of the settlement of Galician

Spanish empire
:

Some Galician patronymical surnames
English name Old Galician (13-15th c.) Modern Galician Spanish
John Eanes Anes, Oanes, Yanes Yáñez, Ibáñez
Stephen Esteuaes, Esteuaez, Esteueez Estévez Estévanez
- Froes, Froez Fróiz, Frois Flores, Flórez
Julian Giançe, Gianz, Gians Giance Juliánez
Ermengild Meendez, Meendes Méndez Menéndez, Meléndez
Martin Martiiz Martíns, Martís Martínez
Michael Migueez Miguéns, Míguez Miguélez
Pelagius Paaez, Paaz Páes, Paiz, Paz Peláez
- Veasques, Vaasquez Vázquez Velázquez, Blázquez
Benedict Beeytez, Beeytes Viéitez, Vieites Benítez
Mediaeval Galician inscription in a 14th-century house, in Noia: "ESTAS CASAS MANDOU FAZER VASCO DACOSTA, ERA DE MCCCLXXVII" These houses were ordered by Vasco Dacosta, era 1377 (1339 CE)

The largest surname group is the one derived from toponyms, which usually referred to the place of origin or residence of the bearer. These places can be European countries (as is the case in the surnames

Dávila), Daporta ("of the gate"); Dasilva ("of the forest"), Dorrío ("of the river"), Datorre ("of the Tower"). Through rebracketing, some of these surnames gave origin to others such as Acosta
or Acuña.

Aqui jaz Fernan Perez d'Andrade (here lies Fernán Pérez de Andrade), 1397 CE

A few of these toponymic surnames can be considered

Lemos (who originated in Monforte de Lemos
). As a result, these surnames are by now distributed all around the world.

Emilio Estévez and his father Martin Sheen
(Ramón Estévez)
French-Spanish actor José Garcia, born Xosé García Doval of Galician parents

The third group of surnames are the occupational ones, derived from the

job or legal status of the bearer: Ferreiro ("Smith"), Carpinteiro ("Carpenter"), Besteiro ("Crossbow bearer"), Crego ("Priest"), Freire ("Friar"), Faraldo ("Herald"), Pintor ("Painter"), Pedreiro ("Stonemason"), Gaiteiro ("Bagpiper"); and also Cabaleiro ("Knight"), Escudeiro ("Esquire"), Fidalgo
("Nobleman"), Juiz ("Judge").

The fourth group includes the surnames derived from nicknames, which can have very diverse motivations:

a) External appearance, as eye colour (Ruso, from Latin roscidus, grey-eyed; Garzo, blue-eyed), hair colour (Dourado, "Blonde"; Bermello, "Red"; Cerviño, literally "deer-like", "Tawny, Auburn"; Cao, "white"), complexion (Branco, "White"; Pardo, "Swarth"; Delgado, "Slender") or other characteristics: Formoso ("Handsome"), Tato ("Stutterer"), Forte ("Strong"), Calviño ("Bald"), Esquerdeiro ("Left-handed").

b) Temperament and personality: Bonome, Bonhome ("Goodman"), Fiúza ("Who can be trusted"), Guerreiro ("Warlike"), Cordo ("Judicious").

c) Tree names: Carballo ("Oak"); Amieiro, Ameneiro ("Alder"); Freijo ("Ash tree").

d) Animal names: Gerpe (from Serpe, "Serpent"); Falcón ("Falcon"); Baleato ("Young Whale"); Gato ("Cat"); Coello ("Rabbit"); Aguia ("Eagle")

e) Deeds: Romeu (a person who pilgrimaged to

the Holy Land
)

Many Galician surnames have become

Spanish navy there in the 18th century.[30] For example, surnames like Orxás, Veiga, Outeiro, became Orjales, Vega, Otero. Toponyms like Ourense, A Coruña, Fisterra
became Orense, La Coruña, Finisterre. In many cases this linguistic assimilation created confusion, for example Niño da Aguia (Galician: Eagle's Nest) was translated into Spanish as Niño de la Guía (Spanish: the Guide's child) and Mesón do Bento (Galician: Benedict's house) was translated as Mesón del Viento (Spanish: House of Wind).

History

Prehistory

See also:
Castro Culture, Gallaeci, and List of Celtic place names in Galicia
Neolithic dolmen of Dombate, roughly contemporary with Stonehenge. Originally it was under a tumulus covered by stones rich in mica

The oldest human occupation of Galicia dates to the

temperate rain forest. The oldest human remains found, at Chan do Lindeiro, are from a woman who lived some 9,300 years ago and died because of a landslide, apparently while leading a pack of three aurochs; the genetic study of her remains revealed a woman that was an admixture of Western Hunter-Gatherer and Magdalenian people.[31] This type of admixture has been observed in France, also.[32]

Later on, some 6,500 years ago, a

Iberia with the rest of Atlantic Europe.[35]

Some 4,500 years ago a new culture and population arrived and presumingly admixed with the local farmers, the

cup and ring marks, labyrinths, Bronze Age weaponry, deer and deer hunting, warriors, riders and ships
.

During the Late Bronze Age and until 800-600 BCE the contacts with both southern Spain to the south, and

Atlantic Isles to the north, intensified, probably fuelled by the abundance of local gold and metals such as tin,[39] which allowed the production of high quality bronze. It is at this moment that began the deposition or hoarding of prestige items, frequently in aquatic context. Also, during the Late Bronze Age a new type of ceremonial henge-like ring structures, of some 50 metres in diameter, are built all along Galicia.[40]

This period and interchange network, usually known as

Celtic from the west theory). Alleged difficulties with this theory and with pre-existing theories ("Celtic from the east") have led Patrick Simms-Williams to propose an intermediate "Celtic from the centre" theory, with an expansion of Celtic languages from the Alps during the Bronze Age.[41] A recent study shows the large scale admixture of an earlier population from Britain with people arriving probably from France during the late Bronze Age. These people, in the opinion of the authors, constitute a plausible vector for the expansion of Celtic languages into Britain, as no further Iron Age people movement of relevant scale is shown in their data.[42]

  • Late Bronze Age
  • Late Bronze Age hoard of Samieira, unearthed in 1948 at some 50 metres from the seashore, and initially consisting of 152 palstaves
    Late Bronze Age hoard of Samieira, unearthed in 1948 at some 50 metres from the seashore, and initially consisting of 152
    palstaves
  • Bronze Age Galician swords, Museo de Pontevedra
    Bronze Age Galician swords, Museo de Pontevedra
  • Casco de Leiro
    Casco de Leiro
  • Pedra Alta warrior stelle, Castrelo do Val
    Pedra Alta warrior stelle, Castrelo do Val
  • 1. sword and girdle. 3. v-notch shield. 4. cart with horses
    1. sword and girdle. 3. v-notch shield. 4. cart with horses
  • Horned-helmet figures
    Horned-helmet figures
  • A rider
    A rider

The Bronze Age - Iron Age transition (locally 1000-600 BCE) coincides with the hoarding of large quantity of bronze axes, unused, both in Galicia,

hill-forts. Among the oldest of these are Chandebrito in Nigrán,[44] Penas do Castelo in A Pobra do Brollón[45] and O Cociñadoiro in Arteixo, on a sea cliff and protected by a 3-metre-tall wall, it was also a metal factory, perhaps[46] dedicated to the Atlantic commerce,[47] all of them founded some 2,900-2,700 years ago. These earlier fortified settlements seem to be placed to control metallurgical resources and commerce. This transitional period is also characterized by the apparition of longhouses of ultimately north European tradition[48][49][50] which were replaced later in much of Galicia by roundhouses
. By the 4th century BCE hill-forts have expanded all along Galicia, also on lowlands, soon becoming the only type of settlements.

These hill-forts were delimited usually by one or more walls; the defences also include ditches, ramparts and towers, and could define several habitable spaces. The gates were also heavily fortified. Inside, houses were originally built with perishable materials, with or without a stone

footing; later on they were entirely made with stone walls, having up to two storeys. Specially in the south, houses or public spaces were adorned with carved stones and warrior sculptures. Stone heads, mimicking severed heads, are found at several locations and were perhaps placed near the gates of the forts. A number of public installations are known, for example saunas of probable ritual use.[51] Of ritual use and great value were also items such as bronze cauldrons, richly figured sacrificial hatchets[52] and gold torcs, of which more than a hundred exemplars are known.[53]

This culture is now known as

Castro Culture; another characteristic of this culture is the absence of known burials: just exceptionally urns
with ashes have been found buried at foundational sites, acting probably as protectors.

  • Iron Age
  • Castromaior, Portomarín, Lugo
    Castromaior, Portomarín, Lugo
  • Castromaior's relief
    Castromaior's relief
  • Sauna of Punta dos Prados, Ortigueira
    Sauna of Punta dos Prados, Ortigueira
  • Gold torcs from Xanceda, Mesía
    Gold torcs from Xanceda, Mesía
  • Sacrificial hatchet showing an ox, cauldron and torc
    Sacrificial hatchet showing an ox, cauldron and torc
  • Short swords
    Short swords
  • Local ear pendants of ultimate Mediterranean origin
    Local ear pendants of ultimate Mediterranean origin

Occasional contacts with Mediterranean navigators, since the last half of the second millennium BCE,

Oestrymni (inhabitants of western Iberia) used hide boats to navigate, an assertion confirmed by Pliny the Elder for the Galicians.[57]

Roman conquest

Guerreiros from northern Portugal, wearing torcs, viriae and caetra. Castro culture.

First recorded contact with Rome happened during the Second Punic War, when Gallaecians and Astures, together with Lusitanians, Cantabrians and Celtiberians —that is, the major Indo-European nations of Iberia— figured among the mercenary armies hired by Hannibal to go with him into Italy. According to Silus Italicus's Punica III:[58]

Fibrarum, et pennæ, divinarumque sagacem
Flammarum misit dives Callæcia pubem,
Barbara nunc patriis ululantem carmina linguis,
Nunc, pedis alterno percussa verbere terra,
Ad numerum resonas gaudentem plaudere cætras.
Hæc requies ludusque viris, ea sacra voluptas.
Cetera femineus peragit labor: addere sulco
Semina, et inpresso tellurem vertere aratro
Segne viris: quidquid duro sine Marte gerendum,
Callaici conjux obit inrequieta mariti.

Gallaecians vs. Romans. Reenactors in Xinzo de Limia, Festa do Esquecemento

"Opulent Galicia sent her youth, expert in divination through the entrails of beasts, the flight of birds and the divine lightnings; sometimes they delight to chant rude songs in their fatherland's tongues, other times they make the ground tremble with alternative foot while happily clashing their

Tui, apart from the other Galicians; other authors also marked the distinctness of the Grovii: Pomponius Mela by addressing that they were non Celtic, unlike the rest of the inhabitants of the coasts of Galicia; Pliny by signalling their Greek origin.[58]

After ending victoriously the

C-14 dating showed that it was built during the 2nd century BCE; since it is north of the Limia, it probably belonged to this campaign.[59]

The Roman contact had a very large impact on the Castro Culture: an increase in commerce with the south and the Mediterranean; adoption or development of sculpture and stone carving; the

warrior ethos appear to increase in social importance;[60] some hill-forts are built new or rebuilt as true urban centres, oppida, with streets and definite public spaces, as San Cibrao de Las (10 ha) or Santa Trega (20 ha).[61]

  • Oppida and Roman conquest
  • Gates of the oppidum of Saint Cibrao de Las
    Gates of the oppidum of Saint Cibrao de Las
  • Aerial photo of San Cibrao de Las
    Aerial photo of San Cibrao de Las
  • Santa Tregra, A Guarda
    Santa Tregra, A Guarda
  • Santa Trega with the Minho in the background
    Santa Trega with the Minho in the background
  • As minted circa 20 BCE during the conquest of Galicia, Asturia and Cantabria
    As minted circa 20 BCE during the conquest of Galicia, Asturia and Cantabria
  • Arms of the Gallaeci: knife, javelins, falcata and caetra
    Arms of the Gallaeci: knife, javelins, falcata and caetra
  • Equitation scene, Formigueiro, Amoeiro
    Equitation scene, Formigueiro, Amoeiro

In 61 BCE

Sebasteion of Aphrodisias, Turkey, where a triumphal monument to Augustus mentions them[64] among other fifteen nations conquered by him. Also, the triumphal arch of Capentras probably represents a Gallaecian among other nations defeated by Augustus.[65]

Languages and ethnicity

Geography and peoples of Galicia, after Mela, Pliny and local Latin epigraphy
See also: Gallaecian language, Lusitanian language, and Celtiberian language

Pomponius Mela (a geographer from Tingentera, modern day Algeciras in Andalusia) described, circa 43 CE, the coasts of northwestern Iberia:[66]

  Frons illa aliquamdiu rectam ripam habet, dein modico flexu accepto mox paululum eminet, tum reducta iterum iterumque recto margine iacens ad promunturium quod Celticum vocamus extenditur.
  Totam Celtici colunt, sed a Durio ad flexum Grovi, fluuntque per eos Avo, Celadus, Nebis, Minius et cui oblivionis cognomen est Limia. Flexus ipse Lambriacam urbem amplexus recipit fluvios Laeron et Ullam. Partem quae prominet Praesamarchi habitant, perque eos Tamaris et Sars flumina non longe orta decurrunt, Tamaris secundum Ebora portum, Sars iuxta turrem Augusti titulo memorabilem. Cetera super Tamarici Nerique incolunt in eo tractu ultimi. Hactenus enim ad occidentem versa litora pertinent.
  Deinde ad septentriones toto latere terra convertitur a Celtico promunturio ad Pyrenaeum usque. Perpetua eius ora, nisi ubi modici recessus ac parva promunturia sunt, ad Cantabros paene recta est.
  In ea primum Artabri sunt etiamnum Celticae gentis, deinde Astyres. In Artabris sinus ore angusto admissum mare non angusto ambitu excipiens Adrobricam urbem et quattuor amnium ostia incingit: duo etiam inter accolentis ignobilia sunt, per alia Ducanaris exit et Libyca

Iberia circa 300 BCE

"That ocean front for some distance has a straight bank, then, having taken a slight bend, soon protrudes a little bit and then it is drawn back, and again and again; then, lying on a straight line, the coast extends to the promontory which we call Celtic. All of it is inhabited by Celtics, except from the Durio until the bend, where the Grovi dwelt —and through them flow the rivers Avo, Celadus, Nebis, Minius and Limia, also called Oblivio—. On the bend there is the city of Lambriaca and the receding part receives the rivers Laeros and Ulia. The prominent part is inhabited by the Praestamarci, and through them flow the rivers Tamaris and Sars —which are born not afar— Tamaris by harbour Ebora, Sars by the tower of Augustus, of memorable title. For the rest, the Supertamarici and Neri inhabit in the last tract. Up to here what belongs to the western coast. From there all the coast is turned to the north, from the Celtic promontory to the Pyrenees. Its regular coast, except where there are small retreats and small headlands, is almost straight by the Cantabrians. On it first of all are the Artabri, still a Celtic people, then the Astures. Among the Artabri there is a bay which lets the sea through a narrow mouth, and encircles, not in a narrow circuit, the city of Adrobrica and the mouth of four rivers." The Atlantic and northern coast of today's Galicia was inhabited by Celtic peoples, with the exception of the southern extreme. Others geographers and authors (Pliny, Strabo), as well as the local Latin epigraphy, confirm the presence of Celtic peoples.

As for the language or languages spoken by the Galicians previously to their romanization, most scholars usually perceive a primitive Indo-European layer, another later one hardly distinguishable from Celtic and identifiable with Lusitanian, most notable in the south, the Gallaecia Bracarense (as a result, Lusitanian is sometimes called Lusitanian-Gallaecian) and finally Celtic proper; as stated by Alberto J. Lorrio:[67] "the presence of Celtic elements in the Northwest is indisputable, but there is no unanimity in considering whether there was an only Indo-European language in the West of Iberia, of Celtic kind, or either a number of languages derived from the arrival of non-Celtic Indo-Europeans first, and Celts later on". Some academic positions on this issue:

  • Palaeolithic continuity theory, considers that Celtic language is autochthonous in Galicia.[68] Since recent genetic studios show that European and Iberian Palaeolithic population was assimilated by larger migrant populations proceeding first from the Balkans and Anatolia, and later from Central Europe and ultimately from the Pontic steppe
    , this theory is probably flawed.
  • For
    Celtic from the West theory, the Celtic language would have expanded during the late Bronze Age from the European Atlantic fringe, including Galicia, to the east.[69][70][71] For Patrick Simms-Williams, Celtic expanded from modern day France during the late Bronze Age.[41]
  • Joan Coromines, lexicographer and author of the Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico, considered that Galician language had a very important substrate attributable to at least two different Indo-European languages, an older non Celtic one who he derived from the Urnfield people and thought was present in most of northern Iberia, and another one he named Artabrian, the Celtic language of the Celts of Galicia.
  • Blanca M. Prósper
    q-Celtic language similar to Celtiberian, is the Western Hispano-Celtic.[74][75]
  • Joaquín Gorrochategui, José M. Vallejo,[76] Alberto J. Lorrio, García Alonso,[77] E. Luján[78] and others, consider that Lusitanian is not a Celtic language, but they don't consider it closer to Italic, neither, but part of a group of IE dialects which later evolved into Celtic, Italic and Lusitanian. On the other hand, Celtic speakers lived in close proximity to the Lusitanian. In this context, Gallaecia Bracarensis was clearly in communion with the Lusitania,[79] while Gallaecia Lucensis had its own Celtic profile.[80][81][82][83][84]
  • Jürgen Untermann, continued by his disciple Carlos Búa,[85] defended that along the westernmost part of Iberia there was essentially just one language or group of languages, Gallaecian-Lusitanian or Lusitanian and Gallaecian, which in their opinion was definitely Celtic and not Italoid, as shown by the ending of dative plural (-bo, -bor < PIE -*bhos) and the evolution of the syllabic consonants, in particular -r̥- > -ri-.
  • Local scholars and researchers of toponymy and lexicon of pre-Latin origin (J. J. Moralejo, Edelmiro Bascuas) saw at least two layers of Indo-Europeans: one early layer of a very primitive IE language which preserved p, most notable in river names, and a later Celtic layer.[86][87]

Roman period

See also: Roman-era records of Gallaecian names and words
Briganti, Nendo < Nemetos, from Nemeton, Entíns < Gentinis ('the chieftains').[89]

A common characteristic of both Gallaecians and western Astures were their onomastic formula and social structure: while most of the other Indo-European peoples of Hispania used a formula such as:

Name + Patronimic (gen. s.) + Gens / Family (gen. pl.), as, for example,
Turaesius Letondicum Marsi f(ilius) : 'Turaesius son of Marsi, of the Letondi clan'
Roman works of Montefurado (Pierced Mountain), which diverted the course of the river Sil

Gallaecians and western Astures used, until the 2nd century of our era, the formula:[90]

Name + Patronimic (gen. s.) + [Populi/Civitas] (nom. s.) + [⊃] (abreviature of castellum) Origo (abl. s.) as:
Nicer Clvtosi ⊃ Cavriaca Principis Albionum : Nicer, son of Clutosios, from castle Cauria, prince of the Albion
Caeleo Cadroiolonis f(ilius) Cilenus ⊃ Berisamo : Cailio, son of Cadroilo, Cilenus from castle Berisamo
Fabia Eburi f(ilia) Lemava ⊃ Eritaeco : Fabia, daughter of Eburios, Lemava from castle Eritaico
Eburia Calueni f(ilia) Celtica Sup(ertamarca) ⊃ Lubri : Eburia, daughter of Calugenos, Celtica Supertamarca from castle Lubris
Anceitus Vacc[e]i f(ilius) limicus ⊃ Talabrig(a) : Anceitos, son of Vacceos, Limicus from castle Talabriga

The known personal names used by locals in northern Gallaecia were largely Celtic:[91] Aio, Alluquius, Ambatus, Ambollus, Andamus, Angetus, Arius, Artius, Atius, Atia, Boutius, Cadroiolo, Caeleo, Caluenus, Camalus, Cambauius, Celtiatus, Cloutaius, Cloutius, Clutamus, Clutosius, Coedus, Coemia, Coroturetis, Eburus, Eburia, Louesus, Medamus, Nantia, Nantius, Reburrus, Secoilia, Seguia, Talauius, Tridia, Vecius, Veroblius, Verotus, Vesuclotus, among others.

Three

Sobrado dos Monxes, near Brigantium; other unity at Aquis Querquennis, and another one near Lucus Augusti) and others elsewhere. Soon Roma began to recruit auxiliary troops locally: five cohorts of Gallaecians from the conventus Lucenses, other five of bracarenses, two mixed ones of Galicians and Asturians, and an ala and cohort of Lemavi.[92][93]

Also, Gallaecia and Asturia became the most important producers of gold on the Empire: according to Pliny Lusitania, Gallaecia and, especially, Asturia, produced the equivalent to 6,700 kg per year. It has been estimated that the eight hundred Roman gold mines known in Galicia produced in total in between 190,000 and 2,000,000 kg.[94]

  • Reenactors at Lugo's Arde Lucus
    Reenactors at Lugo's Arde Lucus
  • Roman camp of Aquis Querquennis
    Roman camp of Aquis Querquennis
  • Nicer Clutosi's stelle
    Nicer Clutosi's stelle
  • Apana Amboli's stele
    Apana Amboli's stele
  • Tabula hospitalis from Carbedo
    Tabula hospitalis from Carbedo
  • Romanized hill-fort of Viladonga, Castro de Rei
    Romanized hill-fort of Viladonga, Castro de Rei

During the

Diocletian reforms, late third century, Gallaecia was upgraded to province
.

Germanic era: 5th – 8th centuries

See also: Germanic personal names in Galicia

In 409 the

Asturia and Cantabria) were assigned to the Suebi and the Hasding Vandals. Both groups clashed soon, in 419, and so the Vandals left to southern Iberia, where they incorporated the last remnants of Alans and Silingi Vandals, who had been crushed by Rome in previous years. In 429 the Vandals left for Africa.[95][96]

In 430 a long term conflict broke in between the Suebi and locals who chronicler Hydatius called gallaecos (i.e. galegos, the endonym of modern-day Galicians) and, initially, plebs ("folk, common people"), in contrast with whom he called romani: the rural landowners in Lusitania and the inhabitants of the cities. Soon, among those Galicians, appear also local noblemen and churchmen. As the Britons in southern Great Britain, the Galician were forced to act autonomously from Rome, exercising home rule.[97] They reoccupied old Iron Age hill-forts and built new strongholds and fortification all along Galicia;[98] the largest known today are at Mt. Pindo,[99] Mt. Aloia[100] and at Castro Valente.[101] These fortresses were later used by locals against Visigoths, Arabs and Norsemen. In this conflict in between Galicians and Suebi, Rome and local bishops acted frequently rather as intermediaries than as a part, and peace our truce was obtained or warranted with the interchange of prisoners and hostages.[95][102]

In 438 both people attained a peace that would last for twenty years; by then old king

petty-kings rivalry, accompanied by devastation and pillage on Galicians, Remismund was recognized as only and legitimate king by the Suebi, and accepted by the Visigoths; he also promoted the Arianism among the Suebi. As result, the Suebi kingdom came to its limits, encompassing modern day Galicia, northern Portugal until Coimbra, and large parts of Asturias, León and Zamora.[103]

The chronicle of Hydatius also records naval raids of both Vandals and Heruli on the Galician coasts during the 5th century.[95]

Medieval era

See also: Gallaeci, Gallaecia, and Kingdom of Galicia

In 718 the area briefly came under the control of the Moors after their conquest and dismantling of the Visigothic Empire, but the Galicians successfully rebelled against Moorish rule in 739, establishing a renewed Kingdom of Galicia which would become totally stable after 813 with the medieval popularization of the "Way of St James".

Geography and demographics

Galician bagpipers
in New York.
See also:
Galicians in Argentina

Political and administrative divisions

The autonomous community, a concept established in the

Spanish constitution of 1978, that is known as (a) Comunidade Autónoma Galega in Galician, and as (la) Comunidad Autónoma Gallega in Spanish (in English: Galician Autonomous Community), is composed of the four Spanish provinces of A Coruña, Lugo, Ourense, and Pontevedra
.

Population, main cities and languages

The official statistical body of Galicia is the Instituto Galego de Estatística (IGE). According to the IGE, Galicia's total population in 2008 was 2,783,100 (1,138,474 in A Coruña,[104] 355.406 in Lugo,[105] 336.002 in Ourense,[106] and 953.218 in Pontevedra[107]). The most important cities in this region, which serve as the provinces' administrative centres, are Vigo (in Pontevedra), Pontevedra, Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Ferrol (in A Coruña), Lugo (in Lugo), and Ourense (in Ourense). The official languages are Galician and Spanish. Knowledge of Spanish is compulsory according to the Spanish constitution and virtually universal. Knowledge of Galician, after declining for many years owing to the pressure of Spanish and official persecution, is again on the rise due to favorable official language policies and popular support.[citation needed] Currently about 82% of Galicia's population can speak Galician[108] and about 61% have it as a mother tongue.[10]

Culture

Celtic revival and Celtic identity

See also:
Celtic revival
Galician pipe band Dambara at the Festival Interceltique de Lorient, 2012

In the 19th century a group of

cup and ring marks, which were and are popularly seen as "Celtic", also among foreigners who travelled to Galicia.[117][118][119]

As a Celtic region of Spain, Galicia has a tartan called Galicia National.[120]

During the late 19th and early 20th century this revival permeated Galician society: in 1916

Celta de Vigo, Céltiga FC, CB Breogán
, etc.

Galician Celtic Revival: Homes de Brigantia ('Men of Brigantia'), by Camilo Díaz Baliño (1922)

From the 1970s on a series of Celtic music and cultural festivals were also popularized, the most notable being the Festival Internacional do Mundo Celta de Ortigueira, at the same time that Galician folk musical bands and interpreters became usual participants in Celtic festivals elsewhere, as in the Interceltic festival of Lorient, where Galicia sent its first delegation in 1976.[123]

Folklore and traditions

Winged serpent of Gondomil, Portugal. The Christian cross is a latter addition

Myths and legends

Fornela dos Mouros ('Mouros' oven') dolmen
Pico Sagro, where a dragon dwelt
Maruxaina
1920's advertising and the Santa Compaña

Galician

myths are the following:[124]
Santa Compaña (modern graffiti)
  • The compaña ('retinue'), hoste ('army'), estantiga ( < hoste antiga, 'anciente army'),
    wild hunt. In its modern form is a nocturne procession of the dead, who, porting candles or torches, and frequently a coffin, announce the imminent decease of a neighbour. This procession can "capture" a living person, who is then obliged to precede the Santa Compaña all night long, through forest, streams and brambles, or until another one takes his place. One can protect himself from being taken by the Compaña by tracing a circle and getting inside it, or by throwing oneself to the ground and ignoring the Compaña while it passes over. A solitary phantom related to the Compaña is the estadea. This myth is also related to the fairy host in Ireland, sluagh in Scotland and toili in Wales.[115]
  • The urco (güercu in Asturias) is a giant black dog who emerges from the sea or from a river to cause terror to the locals. They are also, per se, a bad omen.[131]

Traditions and beliefs

While Galician was traditionally a profoundly Catholic society, in its beliefs there are many remnants of previous religious systems, in particular the belief on a pantheon of gods, now saints; in the reincarnation in form of an animal, when there are unfinished business; the evil eye and the sickness caused by curses; the holiness of crossroads and fountains, etcetera. The first attestation of the beliefs of the Galicians in a Christian context is offered by the Pannonian Martin of Braga who in his letter De Correctione Rusticorum condemns, among others, the belief in the Roman gods or in the lamias, nymphs and dianas, and also in practices as putting candles to trees, springs and crossroads.

  • Sanctuaries are socially important places for pilgrimage (romaría) and devotion, each one under the protection of a saint or virgin Mary. There are different beliefs associated with each one: the sanctuary of Santo André de Teixido in Cedeira is associated with reincarnation, as it is said that a Santo André de Teixido vai de morto o que non foi de vivo ('to Saint Andrew at Teixido —yew-tree-copse— goes as dead the ones that didn't went while alive'). It is advised not to kill lizards or any other animal while in the vicinity. The Corpiño sanctuary near Lalín and San Campío near Tomiño are associated with the treatment of mental illness and evil eye or meigallo. Virxe da Barca in Muxía is built by the place where it is said that Mary arrived aboard a stone boat, a recurring myth in Galicia also present in Ireland and Brittany.[132]
    Many of these places were probably built over pagan cult places.
  • High crosses and calvaries, locally named cruceiros or peto de ánimas, are usually placed at crossroads, before sacred places, or marking a pilgrimage road. Placing flowers or lit candles before that monuments are common practices. In 1996 the Galician community in Ushuaia, Argentine, the southernmost city on the world, built a cruceiro with the legent 'Galicia shines in this land's end'.
  • Traditional medicine was administered by menciñeiros and menciñeiras, who used both herbs and spells to treat illness. Also compoñedores and compoñedoras: healers specialized in mending bones and joints.

Popular feasts

Aside from Catholic feasts and celebrations, there are other annual celebrations of pagan or mixed origin:

  • Feasts
  • Entroido: Peliqueiros of Laza, Ourense
    Entroido: Peliqueiros of Laza, Ourense
  • Boteiros, Viana do Bolo
    Boteiros, Viana do Bolo
  • Traditional filloas, crepe-like pancakes
    Traditional filloas, crepe-like pancakes
  • Pantallas from Xinzo de Limia
    Pantallas from Xinzo de Limia
  • Carantoñas, Chantada
    Carantoñas, Chantada
  • San Xoán
    San Xoán
  • Aloitadores, Rapa das bestas
    Aloitadores, Rapa das bestas

Traditional costume

Traditional Galician costume, as understood today, got conformed fundamentally during the second half of the 18th century. Notwithstanding, some very characteristic elements, as the monteira (an embroidered felt hat),

clogs or boots).[134]

  • Men's traditional costume
  • Musicians, c. 1900
    Musicians, c. 1900
  • A Galician, 1874
    A Galician, 1874
  • A bagpiper with monteira (hat)
    A bagpiper with monteira (hat)
  • An old man in traditional attire
    An old man in traditional attire
  • Zocas
    Zocas
  • Polainas
    Polainas

Female costume was composed of cofia (coif) or, later, pano (headcloth); dengue (short cape worn as a jacket) or corpiño (bodice); camisa (shirt), refaixo (petticoat), saia (skirt), mantelo (apron) and faltriqueira (pouch or bag).[134]

  • Women's traditional costume
  • Old lady with cofia
    Old lady with cofia
  • Galician woman with embroidered mantelo and saffron faldriqueira
    Galician woman with embroidered mantelo and saffron faldriqueira
  • Galician woman by Serafín Avendaño, 1891. She's wearing a dengue
    Galician woman by Serafín Avendaño, 1891. She's wearing a dengue
  • Dancing
    Dancing
  • Zocos
    Zocos
  • At Pontevedra
    At Pontevedra
  • Going to the fountain by Alfredo Souto Cuero, 1893.
    Going to the fountain by Alfredo Souto Cuero, 1893.

Traditional music

Muiñeira
Marcha procesional
Muiñeira de Froxán

The most characteristic instruments in traditional music is probably the gaita (bagpipe). The gaita have a conical double-reed chanter, and usually have one to four drones.[135] The bag is usually inflated through a blowpipe, but in the gaita de barquín it is inflated by the operation of a bellows. In the past the gaita was usually accompanied just by tamboril (snare drum) and bombo or caixa (bass drum), but since the middle of the twentieth century the groups and bands have become very popular. Pieces which are usually interpreted with gaita are the muiñeira, often in 6
8 time and very similar to Irish jigs;[136] the alborada, played during the early mornings of holydays; the marcha (march) which accompanies processions and retinues. Some renowned compositions are the 19th century Muiñeira de Chantada and the traditional Aires de Pontevedra (an alborada) and Marcha do Antigo Reino de Galicia (March of the Old Kingdom of Galicia).

Another very representative instrument is the pandeireta (tambourine), which along or together with other drums as the pandeiro, castanets, etc., usually accompanied the songs and celebrations of the working women and men during the seráns (evenings), foliadas or fiadas.

Other genres include de alalá, which can be sung a cappella, or the cancións de cego (blindman's songs), interpreted with violin of zanfoña.

  • Galician musics and dancers
  • Bagpiper with a gaita de barquín and musicians with a pandeireta and tamboril
    Bagpiper with a gaita de barquín and musicians with a pandeireta and tamboril
  • circa 1900: famous piper O Rilo
    circa 1900: famous piper O Rilo
  • Bagpiper, 13th century, Cantigas de Santa Maria
    Bagpiper, 13th century, Cantigas de Santa Maria
  • Dancing a muiñeira
    Dancing a muiñeira
  • 1927: Os gaiteiros de Soutelo
    1927: Os gaiteiros de Soutelo
  • Musician Faustino Santalices
    Musician Faustino Santalices
  • Pandereiteiras de Mens
    Pandereiteiras de Mens

Literature

Main article:
Galician literature

Painting, plastic arts and architecture

Science

Music

  • Tanxugueiras are a Galician folk trio formed in 2016. The group aim to bring a modern sound to traditional Galician music by merging folk sounds with pop and world music influences. Their music focuses on themes such as the understanding between peoples, the defence of the Galician language and culture, and women's empowerment.
    culture, and women's empowerment
    .
  • Carlos Núñez is currently one of the most famous Galician bagpipers, who has collaborated with Ry Cooder, Sharon Shannon, Sinéad O'Connor, The Chieftains, Altan among others.
    Carlos Núñez is currently one of the most famous Galician bagpipers, who has collaborated with Ry Cooder, Sharon Shannon, Sinéad O'Connor, The Chieftains, Altan among others.
  • Susana Seivane is a Galician bagpiper. She was born into a family of well-known Galician luthiers and musicians (The Seivane).
    Susana Seivane is a Galician bagpiper. She was born into a family of well-known Galician luthiers and musicians (The Seivane).
  • Carlos Jean is a DJ and record producer. He was born in Ferrol, of Haitian and Galician heritage.
    Carlos Jean is a DJ and record producer. He was born in Ferrol, of Haitian and Galician heritage.

Sport

Cinema and TV

  • María Castro (1981-) is a well-known Galician actress who performed in several Spanish TV series and movies.
    María Castro (1981-) is a well-known Galician actress who performed in several Spanish TV series and movies.
  • Luis Tosar has starred in some successful Spanish movies such as Celda 211 or Te doy mis ojos.
    Luis Tosar has starred in some successful Spanish movies such as Celda 211 or Te doy mis ojos.
  • Oliver Laxe is a French-born Galician director whose third film, Fire Will Come, became the most watched and most successful Galician film in history.
    Oliver Laxe is a French-born Galician director whose third film, Fire Will Come, became the most watched and most successful Galician film in history.
  • Maria Casarès was one of the most distinguished stars of the French stage and cinema
    Maria Casarès
    was one of the most distinguished stars of the French stage and cinema

People of Galician origin

See also

References

  1. ^ Sum of the inhabitants of Spain born in Galicia (c. 2.8 million), plus Spaniards living abroad and inscribed in the electoral census (CERA) as electors in one of the four Galician constituencies.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Not including Galicians born outside Galicia
  3. ^ a b c d e f g "Instituto Nacional de Estadística". Ine.es. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "INE – CensoElectoral". Ine.es. Archived from the original on 8 August 2022. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  5. ^ Internacional, La Región (30 July 2015). "Miranda visita Venezuela para conocer las preocupaciones de la diáspora gallega". La Región Internacional. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  6. ^ "Interactivo: Creencias y prácticas religiosas en España". Lavanguardia.com. 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 4 April 2015. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  7. ISBN 0-313-30984-1. Archived
    from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 3 September 2019. other Celtic peoples ... Galicians ...; ... Romance (Latin) nations ... Galicians
  8. PMID 30710075
    .
  9. ISBN 978-84-370-2895-8
    .
  10. ^ a b "Persoas segundo a lingua na que falan habitualmente. Ano 2003". Ige.eu. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  11. ISBN 978-1-85109-440-0
    .
  12. ISBN 978-0-9557182-3-6. Archived
    from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2021., s.v. Callaeci.
  13. ISSN 1135-5026. Archived
    from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  14. ^
    ISBN 978-84-95892-68-3. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 22 March 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
  15. ^ "9.17. Title for image of people of the Callaeci". IAph. Archived from the original on 18 June 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2021.
  16. ISBN 978-84-17595-07-4. Archived
    from the original on 16 July 2021. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
  17. ^ Curchin, Leonard A. (2008) Estudios Gallegos The toponyms of the Roman Galicia: New Study Archived June 25, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. CUADERNOS DE ESTUDIOS GALLEGOS LV (121) p. 111
  18. ^ Benozzo, F. (2018) Uma paisagem atlântica pré-histórica. Etnogénese e etno-filologia paleo-mesolítica das tradições galega e portuguesa, in proceedings of Jornadas das Letras Galego-Portuguesas 2015–2017, DTS, Università di Bologna and Academia Galega da Língua Portuguesa, pp. 159-170.
  19. ^ Pierre-Yves Lambert, Histoire de la langue gauloise, éditions Errance, 1994, p. 99 - 194
  20. ^ a b LAMBERT 191
  21. ^ Xavier Delamarre, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise, Errance, 2003, p. 98-99
  22. ^ DELAMARRE 98 - 99
  23. ^ Fernando Cabeza Quiles, Toponimia de Galicia, Editorial Galaxia, 2008, p. 301 - 302 - 303 (read online in Galician)[1] Archived 22 November 2023 at the Wayback Machine
  24. ^ "Galician". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 28 March 2008. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  25. ^ a b de Azevedo Maia, Clarinda (1986). História do Galego-Português. Estado linguistico da Galiza e do Noroeste de Portugal desde o século XIII ao século XVI. Coimbra: Instituto Nacional de Investigação Científica.
  26. ISSN 0210-377X. Archived
    from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  27. ^ Cf. Ana Isabel Boullón Agrelo / Xulio Sousa Fernández (dirs.): dos apelidos de Galicia[permanent dead link]. Santiago de Compostela: Instituto da Lingua Galega.
  28. OCLC 21951323
    .
  29. ISBN 84-7824-333-X
    .
  30. ISBN 84-7824-333-X
    .
  31. S2CID 76663708
    .
  32. PMID 32457149
    .
  33. ISBN 978-84-9121-048-1. Archived
    from the original on 12 February 2022. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
  34. ^ Benozzo, F. (2018): "Uma paisagem atlântica pré-histórica. Etnogénese e etno-filologia paleo-mesolítica das tradições galega e portuguesa", in proceedings of Jornadas das Letras Galego-Portugesas 2015–2017. Università de Bologna, DTS and Academia Galega da Língua Portuguesa. pp. 159-170
  35. ISBN 978-0-300-11923-7
    .
  36. ISBN 978-1-84217-529-3
    .
  37. ISBN 978-84-96203-29-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
  38. ISBN 978-0-203-44699-7
    . Retrieved 16 January 2022.
  39. ^ Cunliffe, Barry (1999). "Atlantic Sea-ways". Revista de Guimarães. especial - Actas do Congresso de Proto-História Europeia: 93–105. Archived from the original on 12 February 2022. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
  40. ^ Rodríguez, Ana (26 December 2021). "Henges, círculos invisibles de la Edad de Bronce". Faro de Vigo. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
  41. ^ a b An Alternative to 'Celtic from the East' and 'Celtic from the West', Patrick Sims-Williams, Cambridge University Press, 2020 [2] Archived January 12, 2022, at the Wayback Machine
  42. PMID 34937049
    .
  43. hdl:10261/237815. Archived
    from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
  44. ^ Nigrán (16 February 2019). "El castro de Chandebrito duró mil años". Faro de Vigo. Archived from the original on 12 February 2022. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
  45. ^ Redacción (23 December 2021). "Penas do Castelo, un dos castros máis antigos de Galicia". GCiencia. Archived from the original on 12 February 2022. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
  46. ^ Nión-Álvarez, Samuel (2016). "Punta de Muros y su excepcionalidad en el contexto del Hierro I en el Noroeste peninsular". IX Jornadas de Jóvenes en Investigación Arqueológica. Santander. Archived from the original on 11 May 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
  47. ^ Cano Pan, Juan A. (2010). "El yacimiento de Punta de Muros". Anuario Brigantino. 33: 33–63.
  48. S2CID 240654014
    .
  49. ISSN 1698-5664. Archived
    from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
  50. S2CID 162779452. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help
    )
  51. ISSN 1988-2327. Archived
    from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  52. ISBN 978-963-8046-72-7. Archived
    from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  53. ISSN 1131-6993. Archived
    from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  54. S2CID 214517194
    .
  55. ISSN 0212-078X
    .
  56. ISBN 978-84-17729-31-8
    .
  57. ISBN 978-84-88301-13-0. Archived
    from the original on 17 February 2022. Retrieved 17 February 2022.
  58. ^
    OCLC 28499276
    .
  59. ^ "The dating of the Lomba do Mouro site makes it the largest and oldest Roman camp in Galicia and northern Portugal – The Roman Army in the NW of Hispania". 2 June 2021. Archived from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
  60. OCLC 758056842
    .
  61. ISSN 0211-1608. Archived
    from the original on 21 February 2022. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  62. OCLC 28499276
    .
  63. S2CID 240599598
    .
  64. S2CID 162542146. Archived
    from the original on 22 November 2023. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  65. ^ culturagalega.org (11 December 2017). "Un arco de triunfo en Francia pode gardar a primeira representación dun guerreiro galaico vencido". culturagalega.org. Archived from the original on 22 November 2023. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
  66. ISBN 978-84-505-7380-0. Archived
    from the original on 28 February 2022.
  67. ISBN 978-84-15038-26-9
    .
  68. ^ Galicia and North Portugal are the origin of European celticity Archived August 9, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, interview with Prof. Francesco Benozzo, 13/03/2016
  69. ISBN 978-1-84217-475-3
    .
  70. ISBN 978-1-84217-529-3
    .
  71. ISBN 978-1-78570-227-3
    .
  72. ISBN 978-84-7800-335-8. Archived
    from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
  73. ISBN 978-84-7800-818-6
    .
  74. ISBN 978-84-7800-818-6
    .
  75. ISBN 978-84-7800-335-8. Archived
    from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
  76. ISSN 1578-5386. Archived
    from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  77. ^ García Alonso, Juan Luis (1 January 2011). "Oclusivas aspiradas, celtas y lusitanos". A Greek Man in the Iberian Street, Festschrift Javier de Hoz, Juan Luis García Alonso y Eugenio Luján Martínez eds., Innsbruck, pp. 175-190. Archived from the original on 11 May 2022. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
  78. ISBN 978-0-19-879082-2. Archived
    from the original on 25 January 2022. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
  79. ^ "Hesperia: Banco de datos de Lenguas paleohispanicas (read online)". Archived from the original on 28 November 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
  80. ISBN 978-0-19-879082-2. Archived
    from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
  81. ISBN 978-84-7800-335-8. Archived
    from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  82. ISSN 1135-5026. Archived
    from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  83. ISSN 1578-5386. Archived
    from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  84. ISSN 1540-4889
    .
  85. ISBN 978-84-17595-07-4. Archived
    from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
  86. ^ Bascuas, Edelmiro (2008). "la hidronimia de galicia. Tres estratos: paleoeuropeo, celta y latino" (PDF). Estudios Mindonienses. 24: 521–550. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 January 2022. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  87. ISBN 978-84-95892-68-3
    .
  88. ISSN 0213-0181. Archived
    from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  89. ISBN 978-84-17595-07-4. Archived
    from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
  90. ISBN 978-84-9750-794-3
    .
  91. ISBN 978-2-87772-350-3
    .
  92. ISBN 978-84-16343-39-3
    .
  93. ISBN 978-1-4073-1121-0. Archived
    from the original on 22 November 2023. Retrieved 24 February 2022.
  94. ^ "Descubren en un municipio de Pontevedra la mina de oro subterránea romana más grande de Galicia". Público. A Coruña. 3 September 2021. Archived from the original on 24 February 2022. Retrieved 24 February 2022.
  95. ^
    ISBN 978-84-96011-32-8
    .
  96. ISBN 978-84-16643-11-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link
    )
  97. ISBN 84-00-07215-4
    ..
  98. hdl:10347/18729. Archived
    from the original on 25 July 2023. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
  99. ^ "No corazón do xigante (e III): a Terceira Fortaleza do Pindo – Capítulo 0" (in Galician). Archived from the original on 25 July 2023. Retrieved 25 July 2023.
  100. S2CID 213442091. Archived from the original
    on 25 July 2023. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
  101. S2CID 254711145. Archived
    from the original on 25 July 2023. Retrieved 25 July 2023.
  102. ^ Arias, Jorge C. (2007). "Identity and interaction: The Suevi and the Hispano-Romans" (Document). University of Virginia.
  103. ^
    ISBN 9788446028505
    .
  104. ^ "IGE – Principais resultados". Ige.eu. Archived from the original on 24 March 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  105. ^ "IGE – Principais resultados". Ige.eu. Archived from the original on 24 March 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  106. ^ "IGE – Principais resultados". Ige.eu. Archived from the original on 24 March 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  107. ^ "IGE – Principais resultados". Ige.eu. Archived from the original on 24 March 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  108. ^ "Persoas segundo o grao de entendemento do galego falado. Distribución segundo o sexo. Ano 2003". Ige.eu. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  109. ISBN 978-84-460-2260-2
    .
  110. ^ García Quintela, Marco V (2005). "Celtic Elements in Northwestern Spain in Pre-Roman times". E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies. 6: 74.
  111. ISBN 978-84-7800-335-8. Archived
    from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  112. ISBN 1-85109-445-8
    .
  113. ^ González-Ruibal, Alfredo (20 December 2004). "Artistic Expression and Material Culture in Celtic Gallaecia". E-Keltoi. 6: 113–166.
  114. ^ García Quintela, Marco V. (10 August 2005). "Celtic Elements in Northwestern Spain in Pre-Roman times" (PDF). E-Keltoi. 6: 497–569. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 January 2015. Retrieved 10 May 2014.
  115. ^
    ISSN 0211-1810. Archived
    from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
  116. ^ Alberro, Manuel (6 January 2008). "Celtic Legacy in Galicia" (PDF). E-Keltoi. 6: 1005–1034. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 June 2011. Retrieved 10 May 2014.
  117. ^ Wood, Walter; Mason, Frank H. (Frank Henry) (1910). A corner of Spain. London, E. Nash. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
  118. ^ Bell, Aubrey F. G. (Aubrey Fitz Gerald) (1922). Spanish Galicia. London, John Lane. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
  119. ^ Meakin, Annette M. B. (1909). Galicia, The Switzerland of Spain. London : Methuen & Co. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
  120. ^ "Tartan Details - the Scottish Register of Tartans". Archived from the original on 13 June 2023. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
  121. ^ "Galegos, sede fortes / prontos a grandes feitos / aparellade os peitos / a glorioso afán / fillos dos nobres celtas / fortes e peregrinos / luitade plos destinos / dos eidos de Breogán" Cf. "Himno Gallego". Archived from the original on 14 March 2015. Retrieved 10 May 2014.
  122. ISBN 978-84-460-2260-2
    .
  123. ISBN 978-2-7373-5223-2
    .
  124. ^
    ISBN 978-84-9865-387-8
    .
  125. ^ "O PAÍS DA MOURA". YouTube. Archived from the original on 19 February 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
  126. ISBN 978-84-8302-363-1. Archived
    from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 18 February 2022.
  127. ^ "—Ha, ha! I know him. He ran with me to this fountain, where he has just left me. That man, Sir Cavalier, is no thief. If he is any thing at all, he is a Nuveiro,—a fellow who rides upon the clouds, and is occasionally whisked away by a gust of wind. Should you ever travel with that man again, never allow him more than one glass of anise at a time, or he will infallibly mount into the clouds and leave you, and then he will ride and run till he comes to a water brook, or knocks his head against a fountain—then one draught, and he is himself again." George Borrow (1923). The Bible In Spain. John Murray. p. 420. Retrieved 18 February 2022.
  128. ^
    OCLC 867868161.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
  129. ISSN 1130-7625. Archived from the original on 27 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help
    )
  130. ^ Ferro-Veiga, José Manuel (2020). El Hombre Lobo de Allariz: Manual Operativo de investigación de asesinos en serie. José Manuel Ferro Veiga.
  131. ^ "Urco, el terrorífico perro de Cortegada". La Voz de Galicia. 15 June 2014. Archived from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 18 February 2022.
  132. doi:10.3406/ecelt.1992.1993. Archived
    from the original on 19 February 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
  133. ISSN 1130-7625. Archived
    from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
  134. ^
    ISBN 978-84-15078-36-4
    .
  135. ^ "Os Instrumentos Musicais na Tradición Galega » Gaita de fol "sinxela"". Archived from the original on 17 April 2013. Retrieved 7 March 2022.
  136. ISBN 978-1-135-20414-3
    .
  137. ISBN 0-521-04313-1
    .
  138. European Athletics. 3 March 2019. Archived
    from the original on 31 May 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2021.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to People of Galicia (Spain).
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Galicians&oldid=1217670067"