History of science and technology in Mexico
The history of science and technology in Mexico spans many years.
Following the Spanish conquest in 1521, New Spain (colonial Mexico) was brought into the European sphere of science and technology. The Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico, established in 1551, was a hub of intellectual and religious development in colonial Mexico for over a century. During the Spanish American Enlightenment in Mexico, the colony made considerable progress in science, but following the war of independence and political instability in the early nineteenth century, progress stalled.
During the late 19th century under the regime of Porfirio Díaz, the process of industrialization began in Mexico. Following the Mexican Revolution, a ten-year civil war, Mexico made significant progress in science and technology. During the 20th century, new universities, such as the National Polytechnical Institute, Monterrey Institute of Technology and research institutes, such as those at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, were established in Mexico.
According to the World Bank, Mexico is Latin America's largest exporter of high-technology goods (High-technology exports are manufactured goods that involve high R&D intensity, such as in aerospace, computers, pharmaceuticals, scientific instruments, and electrical machinery) with $40.7 billion worth of high-technology goods exports in 2012.[1] Mexican high-technology exports accounted for 17% of all manufactured goods in the country in 2012 according to the World Bank.[2]
Indigenous Civilizations
The
To predict planting and harvesting times, early peoples studied the movements of the sun, stars, and planets. They used this information to make calendars. The Aztecs created two calendars- one for farming, and one for religion. The farming calendar let them know when to plant and to harvest crops. An Aztec calendar stone dug up in Mexico City in 1790 includes information about the months of the year and pictures of the sun god at the center.
Colonial Era
After the
The
The municipal government (cabildo) of Mexico City formally requested the Spanish crown to establish a university in 1539.
Pedro Lopez, a physician to King
Alonso López de Hinojosos, the physician at the Royal Hospital of Indians conducted many autopsies during the epidemic of 1576 in order to understand more the nature of the Cocoliztli disease. He also wrote textbooks on surgery. During that same epidemic, Juan de la Fuente, professor of medicine at the University of Mexico convoked all of the local physicians in order to further understand the disease.[8]
Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora was a Mexican Jesuit poet, a philosopher, a mathematician, a historian, and antiquarian. He studied astronomy, physics, and mathematics at Tepotzotlán College. He was at one point invited to visit the court of Louis XIV. He abandoned Aristotelianism and adopted Cartesianism. He also advocated a naturalistic explanation for comets, free from superstition.[9]
In 1693 Viceory Galve nominated Sigüenza to form part of a scientific expedition tasked with exploring the Gulf of Mexico. Siguena accepted and published his findings in a treatise. He also wrote treatises on astronomy and geometry.[10]
Bourbon Reforms
In the early 18th century, the
Notable scientists during this era included José Antonio de Alzate y Ramírez and Andrés Manuel del Río.[11] Río discovered the chemical element vanadium in 1801.[14]
During this era Francisco Xavier Gamboa was a jurist who also expressed interest in science. After being tasked with compiling reports for the government of New Spain he studied mathematics and mining and wrote a treatise on mining engineering.[10]
Antonio de León y Gama wrote reports on the moons of Jupiter, the climate of New Spain, and helped to precisely calculate the longitude of Mexico. He also wrote a report on the Aztec sun stone.[10]
Joaquín Velázquez de León's scientific reputation earned the praise of Alexander von Humboldt. He studied the works of Francis Bacon and Isaac Newton and specialized in mathematics, geodesy, and astronomy.[10]
Velázquez de León built scientific instruments not available in New Spain and accompanied José de Gálvez on his expedition to Sonora. He also made expeditions into the Californias where the clear skies of those regions allowed him to make many astronomical observations, including a transit of Venus in 1769, which allowed him to measure the distance from the Earth to the Sun. Accompanying him on that occasion was Jean-Baptiste Chappe d'Auteroche, the French priest and geometer. While in the Californias he precisely calculated their longitudes and latitudes. In 1773, he also precisely calculated the longitude and latitude of Mexico City.[15]
Through triangulation between Peñón de los Baños, to Huehuetoca, Velázquez de León drew up topographical charts for the region. He was also commissioned to work on projects related to mining by the government of New Spain.[15]
During the reign of Charles III, Alejandro Malaspina and Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Antonio Valdés y Fernández Bazán were tasked with carrying out expeditions to explore the northwest coast of New Spain.[17]
José Mariano Mociño studied at the Botanic Garden in 1789.[18] Mociño had accompanied Martín Sessé y Lacasta in the scientific expedition ordered by Charles IV in 1795 tasked with surveying New Spain's plant life. The expedition lasted eight years. Mociño traveled over three thousand leagues ultimately producing a report titled Mexican Flora which was then sent to the Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid. The Swiss naturalist Augustin Pyramus de Candolle was an admirer of the work, and when Mociño travelled to Spain to access his volume, a copy had to be made so that DeCandolle would not have to part with it.[19]
Early Years of Independence
In 1833, President Valentín Gómez Farías, himself a physician decreed the establishment of a School of Medical Sciences. It was ultimately not built due to the Gomez Farias administration being overthrown by a coup shortly afterward, but in 1854 a private medical college was established in Mexico City.[20] Gómez Farías also closed the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico in 1833 as part of his anti-clerical measures.
Certain Mexican presidents in this era had come from a background in the sciences. President Anastasio Bustamante had been a physician and during a temporary exile in Europe, he had spent some of his time visiting the anatomical collections of Montpellier and Vienna.[21] President Valentín Gómez Farías had started out his professional career practicing medicine in Guadalajara. President Manuel Robles Pezuela was a military engineer who had engaged in important geodesic and topographic projects in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. He was also a member of the Mexican Society of Statistics and of the Paris Geographical Society.[22]
The statesman Lucas Alamán who served under multiple administrations had come from a background of mining engineering, and in his youth he had studied in Europe under René Just Haüy, Jean-Baptiste Biot, and Louis Jacques Thénard.[23] He had also sought to bring to Mexico the technique of separating silver and gold through the use of sulfuric acid in contrast to the old technique of using nitric acid.[24]
General Pedro García Conde studied mathematics, chemistry, and mineralogy, at the Mining College in Mexico, and joined the military as an engineer. In 1834, he was named geometer of the boundary commission. In 1838 he was named director of the Military College.[25]
Conde passed sweeping reforms for the military college, establishing courses on descriptive geometry, applied mechanics, astronomy and geodesy. He was Secretary of War in the years leading up to the
Francisco Díaz Covarrubias studied at the Mining School, and in 1854 he was appointed professor of topography, geodesy, and astronomy. He was part of the team that made the first detailed hydrographic map of the valley of Mexico, and improved upon the Mexican geographic coordinates made by Alexander von Humboldt.[27]
Leopoldo Río de la Loza studied at San Ildefonso College and in 1827 received the title of surgeon. He did not enjoy the field and began studying to work as a pharmacist. He graduated in 1833 and played a role in the efforts against the cholera epidemic which broke out that year. He published articles on mineral and drinking waters, on medication, on Lake Texcoco, and other matters related to public hygiene.[28]
Miguel F. Jiménez after attending medical school began teaching anatomy in 1838. He published an landmark study on spotted fever colloquially known as tabardillo, in 1846. He continued to publish various treatises on illnesses and conditions throughout his career.[19]
The first industrial exhibition in Mexico opened on November 1, 1849, in Mexico City.[29] In 1849, the exclusive concession to establish telegraph lines was granted to Juan de la Granja, and on December, 1851 the first telegram in Mexico was transmitted from Mexico City to Puebla. The line was extended to Vera Cruz the following year.[30]
During the period of the
Maximilian's Minister of Public Works Luis Robles Pezuela presented the government a report on the state of Mexico's telegraphic network which then included three lines. One connecting Veracruz to Tehuacán, and two private lines: one of them connecting Bagdad to Matamoros. Maximilian also had a private line built, connecting the Chapultepec Castle to the National Palace. The Emperor made efforts to expand this network.[33]
A railroad connecting Veracruz to Mexico City was first proposed in 1830. The government granted an ill-fated concession to begin the project in 1837.[34] After more ill-fated efforts substantial progress was finally made in 1857 after a concession had been granted to Antonio Escandon, but it was interrupted by the nation's ongoing civil wars.[35] Engineers commissioned by Emperor Maximilian completed 134 miles before the fall of the Second Mexican Empire in 1867.[36] The long-awaited Mexico City to Veracruz railroad line was finally inaugurated on January 1, 1873.[37]
Porfiriato
Porfirio Díaz' ascension to the presidency in 1876 brought an end to the Mexican civil wars which had repeatedly broken out since independence had first been achieved. Mexico entered upon a period of stability and industrialization which also contributed to advances in science and technology. The influence of French Positivism led to a renaissance of scientific activity in Mexico.
Chief among the positivists was Gabino Barreda who founded the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria and became its first director.[38][39] The medical faculty would eventually include the physicians Manuel Carmona y Valle, Eduardo Liceaga, and Rafael Lavista y Rebolla, the oculist Joaquín Vértiz, and the pediatrician Miguel Otero y Arce.[40] The faculty of physical scientists would eventually include the chemist Andrés Almaraz, and the engineer Mariano de la Bárcena.[40] The faculty of mathematics would eventually include Jose Joaquin Terrazas, and the engineer Leandro Fernández Imas.[40]
A national observatory at Chapultepec was decreed in December, 1876 and inaugurated on May, 1878. Its first director was Francisco Díaz Covarrubias. The observatory included a meteorological and magnetic observatory and maintained correspondence with international observatories and scientific organizations.[41] In 1877 a meteorological observatory was established which also maintained correspondence with international observatories.[42] Covarrubias was appointed president over a scientific commission tasked with travelling to Japan to observe the 1874 transit of Venus.[43] A geological society was established in 1875.[44]
The Federal Telegraphic Office during this time provided meteorological observations.[45] The Academy of Medicine annually awarded prizes to the authors of the best scientific reports. A Pedro Escobedo Society also awarded prizes for scientific accomplishments. The Mexican government made efforts to reward scientific discovery by sending relevant scientists to Europe so that they could gain more attention for their work.[45]
The proliferation of railroads stimulated the development of Mexican industry by giving it access to the latest machinery.[46]
A Ministry of Communications and Public Works was established during this time, and began a program of building lighthouses for Mexican ports.
Improvements to the nation's telegraph network continued during this time. A school of telegraphy was established along with workshops to repair the network.
A telephone network began to be built in Mexico during this time. By the beginning of the 20th century telephone networks between cities spanned over 27,000 kilometers of wire and included almost 3000 devices. Every state in Mexico was included in the network.[52]
Science and technology in the 20th century
During the 20th century, Mexico made significant progress in science and technology. New universities and research institutes were established. The
Mexican scientists, physicians, and intellectuals were involved in the movement to shape Mexico's population through
In the 1930s
On August 31, 1946,
Mexico was in the forefront of the Green Revolution, funded by the Rockefeller Foundation and developed by Norman Borlaug, who later won the Nobel Prize for his work. The aim was to increase the productivity of Mexican agriculture through the development of new strains of seeds. Mexico founded the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center to further this scientific work.[60]
In the 1950s, the wild yam known as
In 1959, the Mexican Academy of Sciences (Academia Mexicana de Ciencias) was established as a non-governmental, non-profit organization of distinguished scientists. The academy has grown in membership and influence, and it represents a strong voice of scientists from different fields, mainly in science policy.[62]
By 1960, science was institutionalized in Mexico. It was viewed as a legitimate endeavor by the Mexican society.[57] Guillermo Haro through his own astronomical research and the formation of new institutions, Haro was influential in the development of modern observational astronomy in Mexico. Internationally, he is best known for his contribution to the discovery of Herbig–Haro objects.
In 1961, the Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute was established as a center for graduate studies in subjects such as biology, mathematics, and physics. In 1961, the institute began its graduate programs in physics and mathematics and schools of science were established in Mexican states of Puebla, San Luis Potosí, Monterrey, Veracruz, and Michoacán. The Academy for Scientific Research was established in 1968 and the National Council of Science and Technology (CONAHCYT) was established in 1971.[57]
Many of Professor Miledi's studies and breakthroughs in Neurobiology, especially those related to the mechanisms of synaptic and
In 1985 Rodolfo Neri Vela became the first Mexican citizen to enter space as part of the STS-61-B mission.[64]
In 1995 Mexican chemist
Evangelina Villegas work with maize led to the development of quality protein maize (QPM). Surinder Vasal, shared the 2000 World Food Prize for this achievement.[67] Villegas was the first woman to ever receive the World Food Prize.[68]
The
In 1962, the National Commission of Outer Space (Comisión Nacional del Espacio Exterior, CONNE) was established but was dismantled in 1977. On July 30, 2010, the law to create the Agencia Espacial Mexicana (AEM) was published. It is now in the process of defining the National Space Policy and its program of activities. Robotics is a new area under development in Mexico, the Mexone Robot is one of the most advanced robot designs in the world.[69]
Science and technology in the 21st century
Austrade predicts Mexico's IT spending will grow at a compound annual growth rate of 11 percent over 2011–2015.[70]
Based on the information managed by
The
José Hernández-Rebollar he invented an electronic glove,[71] known as the AcceleGlove, which translates hand movements from the American Sign Language into spoken and written words. His invention already recognizes and translates 300 basic words. His invention has been recognized by the Smithsonian Institution,[72] where he has lectured about the glove,[73] which has attracted media attention.[74]
Mexico was ranked 58th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[75][76]
Overview of science and technology policy, 2015–2019
A shift in development model
Since the change in government in December 2018, Mexico's socio-economic policy has pivoted towards a new development model with a focus on social programmes. The government has introduced new instruments to redistribute income. This has contributed to a change in the structure of public expenditure, both in terms of consumption and investment.[77]
Mexico has been affected by the America First doctrine of its northern neighbour and main trading partner, which materialized in a long negotiation for the signing of the USMCA. As a result, Mexico has departed from its previous growth pattern of around 2% per year. In 2019, the economy shrank by 0.1%, although full employment was preserved, with just 3.4% of the population being unemployed at the time.[77]
A focus on social and local challenges
There is, as yet, little evidence that Mexico's economy will undergo deep structural changes overnight. The absence of any industrial policy suggests that the Mexican economy will remain dependent on oil and manufactured exports associated with global value chains, as well as remittances. Mexico's main targets, as outlined in the National Development Plan for 2019–2024, relate to national challenges such as poverty, inequality, employment and education. Mexico submitted a Voluntary National Review for the Highlevel Political Forum on Sustainable Development in 2018 and the current government has linked the National Development Plan to The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The government is working to connect science better with local challenges. Its new initiative, entitled Strategic National Programmes (PRONACES), allocates funding to research projects with a focus on societal issues at local level.[77]
Programmes include: contaminating processes and the socioenvironmental impact of toxins; the promotion of literacy as a strategy for social inclusion; and the sustainability of socioecological systems.[77]
PRONACES is co-ordinated by the National Council of Science and Technology (CONACYT). In 2019, PRONACES accounted for just 1.1% of CONACYT's budget but recent changes suggest that resources may be reassigned to this new programme. Since 2019, the government has reverted to a linear view of innovation that minimizes the vital role played by the business sector in innovation. One consequence of this policy shift has been that CONACYT no longer funds private business ventures, although it does still engage in other forms of public–private partnership like with the Querétaro Aerospace Cluster.[77]
The end of the road for sectoral funds
Since 2019, the government has been gradually winding down the sectoral funds programme, as part of the curb on allocating resources to promote business innovation. In 2019 and 2020, CONACYT did not issue any calls for project proposals, meaning that only those projects having received funding in previous years remain operational.[77]
The Law on Science and Technology (2002) stipulates that CONACYT is entitled to sign agreements with various ministries and other government bodies to cofinance each sectoral fund. Technical committees were set up to assign public resources to priority economic sectors. By 2005, there were 17 of these mission-oriented funds in sectors that included agriculture, energy, environment and health.[77]
The amount of resources allocated to the sectoral funds has always been modest; by 2019, these amounted to 2.1% of CONACYT's budget.[77]
In 2020, the government decided to eliminate sectoral funds altogether without undertaking any robust evaluation to justify their disappearance.[77]
Putting the brakes on the slide in research intensity
Research intensity has been declining steadily. In 2018, it hit a low of 0.31% of GDP. In 2020, parliament approved a rule prohibiting any further drop in public research expenditure until the 1% target laid out in the Law of Science and Technology is attained.[77]
In 2018, the public sector financed nearly 80% of GERD. To promote basic science, the López Obrador administration has established a new programme called Frontier Science that is co-ordinated by CONACYT.[77]
A far-reaching bill
A draft bill on science, technology and innovation was presented to the president in December. The bill proposes moving from a governance system in which the scientific, technical, academic and business communities at federal and state levels all participate in decision-making bodies towards a concentration of power in CONACYT. Some other normative documents already approved by parliament reflect this gradual centralization of decision-making power and resources in CONACYT. For instance, the new CONACYT Statutes approved in 2020 have eliminated the autonomous character of the body responsible for ensuring linkages between the public sector and the scientific, technical, academic and business communities, the Scientific and Technological Consultative Forum.[77]
Chicxulub crater
The
Mexican National Prize for Arts and Sciences
Physics, Mathematics, and Natural Sciences
Ciencias Físico-Matemáticas y Naturales
- 2018: (Tie)
- Carlos Alberto Aguilar Salinas
- Mónica Alicia Clapp Jiménez Labora
- 2017: María Elena Álvarez-Buylla Roces
- 2016: (Tie)
- Cecilia Noguez
- David Kershenobich Stalnikowitz
- 2015: (Tie)
- Jorge Alcocer Varela
- Fernando del Río Haza
- 2014: (Tie)
- Carlos Federico Arias Ortiz
- Mauricio Hernández Ávila
- 2013: (Tie)
- Federico Bermúdez Rattoni
- Magdaleno Medina Noyola
- 2012: (Tie)
- Ruben Gerardo Barrera
- Carlos Artemio Coello Coello
- Susana Lizano
- 2011:Julio Collado-Vides
- 2010: (Tie)
- Marcelo Lozada y Cassou
- Gerardo Gamba Ayala
- 2009: (Tie)
- Alberto Darszon Israel
- Jaime Urrutia Fucugauchi
- 2008: (Tie)
- Edmundo García Moya
- Alberto Robledo Nieto
- Moisés Selman
- 2007: Silvia Torres Castilleja
- 2006: Juan Ramón de la Fuente
- 1986: Adolfo Martínez Palomo
- 1985: Marcos Rojkind Matluk
- 1984: José Ruiz Herrera
- 1983: Octavio Augusto Novaro
- 1982: Bernardo Sepúlveda Gutiérrez
- 1981: Manuel Peimbert Sierra
- 1980: Guillermo Soberón Acevedo
- 1979: Pablo Rudomín Zevnovaty
- 1978: Rafael Méndez Martínez
- 1977: Jorge Cerbón Solórzano
- 1976: (Tie)
- 1975:(Tie)
- Arcadio Poveda Ricalde
- Guillermo Massieu Helguera
- Joaquín Gravioto Muñoz
- 1974: (Tie)
- 1973: Carlos Casas Campillo
- 1972: (Tie)
- 1971: Jesús Romo Armería
- 1970: Carlos Graef Fernández
- 1969: (Tie)
- 1968: Salvador Zubirán Anchondo
- 1967: José Adem Chaín
- 1966: Arturo Rosenblueth Stearns
- 1964: Ignacio González Guzmán
- 1963: Guillermo Haro Barraza
- 1961: Ignacio Chávez Sánchez
- 1959: Manuel Sandoval Vallarta
- 1957: Nabor Carrillo Flores
- 1948: Maximiliano Ruiz Castañeda
Technology and Design
Tecnología y Diseño
- 2018: (Tie)
- Ricardo Chicurel Uziel
- Leticia Myriam Torres Guerra
- 2017:Emilio Sacristan Rock
- 2016: (Tie)
- Lourival Possani Postay
- Luis Enrique Sucar Succar
- 2015:
- Raúl Rojas
- Enrique Galindo Fentanes
- 2014: José Mauricio López Romero
- 2013: Martín Ramón Aluja Schuneman Hofer
- 2012: Sergio Antonio Estrada Parra
- 2011: Raúl Gerardo Quintero Flores
- 2010: Sergio Revah Moiseev
- 2009: (Tie)
- Blanca Elena Jiménez Cisneros
- José Luis Leyva Montiel
- 2008: María de los Ángeles Valdés
- 2007: Miguel Pedro Romo Organista
- 2006: Fernando Samaniego Verduzco
- 2005: Alejandro Alagón Cano
- 2004: (Tie)
- Héctor Mario Gómez Galvarriata
- Martín Guillermo Hernández Luna
- Arturo Menchaca
- 2003: Octavio Manero Brito
- 2002: Alexander Balankin
- 2001: Filberto Vázquez Dávila
- 2000: Francisco Alfonso Larque Saavedra
- 1999: Jesús Gonzales Hernández
- 1997: (Tie)
- 1996: (Tie)
- 1995: Alfredo Sánchez Marroquín
- 1994: (Tie)
- 1993: José Ricardo Gómez Romero
- 1992: (Tie)
- 1991: (Tie)
- 1990: (Tie)
- 1988: Mayra de la Torre
- 1987: Enrique Hong Chong
- 1986: Daniel Malacara Hernández
- 1985: José Luis Sánchez Bribiesca
- 1984: Jorge Suárez Díaz
- 1983: José Antonio Ruiz de la Herrán Villagómez
- 1982: Raúl J. Marsal Córdoba
- 1981: Luis Esteva Maraboto
- 1980: Marcos Mazari Menzer
- 1979: Juan Celada Salmón
- 1978: Enrique del Moral
- 1977: Francisco Rafael del Valle Canseco
- 1976: (Tie)
Mexican-born scientists working in the United States
In February 2015,
The Space For Humanity initiative selected Katya Echazarreta out of over 7,000 applicants to fly to space with Blue Origin NS-21 as a Space for Humanity Ambassador.[82][83][84] Launched on June 4, 2022, she became the first Mexican-born woman in space.
- molecular biologist)
- Albert Vinicio Bae - (physicist, Science educator)
- Rodrigo Banuelos - (mathematician)
- Barona, Andres, Jr. - (educational psychologist)
- neurosurgeon)
- Garcia, Hector P. - (physician, activist)
- inventor)
- botanist)
- cell biologist)
Premio México de Ciencia y Tecnología
See also
- History of Mexico
- Index of Mexico-related articles
- Spanish American Enlightenment
- Spanish language in science and technology
- CONACYT
Sources
This article incorporates text from a
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Further reading
- Agostini, Claudia. Monuments of Progress: Modernization and Public Health in Mexico City, 1876–1910.University of Calgary Press and University Press of Colorado 2003.
- Beatty, Edward. Technology and the Search for Progress in Mexico. Berkeley: University of California Press 2015.
- Boyer, Christopher R., ed. A Land Between Waters: Environmental Histories of Modern Mexico. Tucson: University of Arizona Press 2012.
- Cotter, Joseph. Troubled Harvest: Agronomy and Revolution in Mexico, 1880-2002. Westport CT: Praeger 2003.
- Fishburn, Evelyn and Eduardo L. Ortiz, eds., Science and the Creative Imagination in Latin America. London: Institute for the Study of the Americas 2005.
- Fortes, Jacqueline; ISBN 0-271-02632-4
- Hewitt de Alcántara, Cynthia. Modernizing Mexican Agriculture: Socioeconomic Implications of Technological Change, 19401970. Geneva: UN Research Institute for Social Development 1976.
- Levy, Daniel C. (1986). Higher Education and the State in Latin America: Private Challenges to Public Dominance. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-47608-1.
- Medina Eden, et al., eds. Beyond Imported Magic: Essays on Science, Technology, and Society in Latin America. Cambridge MA: MIT Press 2014.
- Simonian, Lane. Defending the Land of the Jaguar: A History of Conservationism in Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press 1995.
- Saldaña, Juan José. Science in Latin America: A History. Austin: University of Texas Press 2006.
- Soto Laveaga, Gabriela. Jungle Laboratories: Mexican Peasants, National Projects, and the Making of The Pill. Durham: Duke University Press, 2009.
- Soto Laveaga, Gabriela. "Bringing the Revolution to Medical Schools: Social Service and a Rural Health Emphasis in 1930s Mexico." Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 29, no. 2 (2013): 397–427.
- Trabulse, Elías (1983). Historia de la ciencia en México: Estudios y textos. Siglo XIX. Fondo de Cultura Económica. ISBN 968-16-1472-0.
- Trabulse, Elías (1983). Historia de la ciencia en México (versión abreviada). Fondo de Cultura Económica.
- Trabulse, Elías (1983–1989). Historia de la ciencia en México (5 vol.). Fondo de Cultura Económica.
- Trabulse, Elías (1992). José María Velasco: Un pasaje de la ciencia en México. Instituto Mexiquense de Cultura.
- Trabulse, Elías (1993). Ciencia mexicana: Estudios históricos. Textos Dispersos.
- Trabulse, Elías (1994). Los orígenes de la ciencia moderna en México. Fondo de Cultura Económica.
- Trabulse, Elías (1995). Arte y ciencia en la historia de México. Fomento Cultural Banamex.
- Wolfe, Mikael D. Watering the Revolution: An Environmental and Technological History of Agrarian Reform in Mexico. Durham: Duke University Press 2017.