History of Nagorno-Karabakh
History of Artsakh |
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Antiquity |
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Middle Ages |
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Early Modern Age |
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Modern Age |
Following the collapse of Soviet Union, most of this area came under the control of the de facto
Ancient history
The region of
The first mention of the territory of modern Nagorno-Karabakh is in the inscriptions of
By the beginning of the
Similarly, Robert Hewsen in his earlier work[7] and Soviet historiography[8][9] date the inclusion of Nagorno-Karabakh into Armenia to the 2nd century BC.
Legend of Aran
According to local traditions held by many people in the area, the two river valleys in Nagorno-Karabakh were among the first lands to be settled by
Artsakh as province of the Kingdom of Armenia
Ancient inhabitants of Artsakh spoke a dialect of the Armenian language; this is attested by the author of an Armenian grammar, Stepanos Siunetsi, who lived around AD 700.[17][18]
Strabo,
Armenian historian Faustus of Byzantium wrote that during the epoch of upheaval that followed the Persian invasion of Armenia around 370AD, Artsakh was one of the provinces that rose in revolt, while Utik was seized by the Caucasus Albanians. Armenian military commander Mushegh Mamikonian defeated Artsakh in a massive battle, took many prisoners and hostages, and imposed a tribute on the remaining population. In 372, Mushegh defeated the Caucasus Albanians, took Utik from them, and restored the border along the Kura, "as was earlier".[23]
According to the Geography (Ashkharatsuyts) of 7th-century Armenian geographer Anania Shirakatsi, Artsakh was the 10th of 15 provinces (nahangs) of Armenia, and consisted of 12 districts (gavars):
- Siunik),
- Vaykunik (Zar),
- Berdadzor,
- Mets Arank,
- Mets Kvenk,
- Harjlank, Mukhank,
- Piank,
- Parsakank (Parzvank),
- Kusti,
- Parnes and
- Koght.
However Anania predicted that even during his time, Artsakh and the neighboring regions would “tear away from Armenia". This happened in 387, when Armenia was
Mashtots and Aranshakhik period
This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2021) |
In the early 4th century
In the early 5th century Mesrop Mashtots created the Armenian alphabet and founded one of the first schools in Armenia at the Amaras Monastery in Artsakh, sparking a flourishing culture and national identity.[25][26] In the 5th century the eastern part of Armenia — including Artsakh — remained under Persian rule. But in 451 the Armenians rebelled against the Persians’ policy of compelling the practice of the
At the end of the 5th century, Artsakh and neighboring
In the 7th and 8th centuries a distinctive Christian culture took shape. The monasteries at
Armenian princedoms of Dizak and Khachen
From the beginning of the 9th century, the Armenian
In the medieval period architecture flourished, particularly religious buildings such as the
Seljuks, Mongols and Safavids
In the 11th century the Seljuk invasion swept the Middle East, including Transcaucasia. Nomadic Oghuz Seljuk tribes that came with this invasion became a dominant constituent of the ancestry of modern Azerbaijanis.[44] From then until the beginning of the 20th century these tribes used mountainous Karabakh as their summer pastures, where they stayed for four or five of the warmer months of the year, and in fact owned the region.[45][46]
In the 12th and 13th century the Armenian
For 30–40 years of the 13th century the
.Nomadic presence in Artsakh and the plains to the east of it continued in this period as well.) with Artsakh corresponding to its mountains (Mountainous Karabakh or Nagorno-Karabakh in the Soviet tradition).
The name is first mentioned in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in The Georgian Chronicles (Georgian: ქართლის ცხოვრება "Life of Kartli"),[48] and in the geographical work of Hamdallah Mustawfi Nuzhat al-Qulub.[49] The name became common after the 1230s when the region was conquered by the Mongols.[50]
In the beginning of the 16th century Karabakh was conquered by the Safavid Empire, which created Safavid Karabakh there, with some additional nearby territory, and centered it in the city of Ganja. In this period Karabakh nomads coalesced in the igirmi-dörd (literally, 'twenty-four' in Azerbaijani) and otuz-iki ('thirty-two') confederations that were among the key allies of the Safavids in this part of their empire. Christian Armenian denizens of Karabakh paid higher taxes.[51]
The centuries-long subjection of the local Armenians to Muslim leaders, their relations with Turkic tribal elders and frequent Turkic-Armenian-Iranian intermarriage resulted in Armenians adopting elements of Perso-Turkic Muslim culture, such as language, personal names, music, an increasingly humble position for women and, in some cases, even polygamy.[52]
Armenian melikdoms
The princedom of Khachen existed until the 16th–17th century then broke up into five small principalities ("melikdoms"):
- Giulistan or Talish melikdom included the territory from Ganja to the River Tartar.
- Dzraberd or Charaberd melikdom stretched from the River Tartar to the River Khachenaget.
- Karkar.
- Varanda melikdom included the territory from the Karkar to the south side of Mount Kirs.
- Arax.
These melikdoms were referred to as khamsa, which means "five" in Arabic.[53] While subordinate to Safavid Persia's
According to some historiographers of the 18th century, of those five
The idea of Armenian independence in Karabakh from Persia first arose at the end of the 17th century thanks to the meliks. Parallel with the armed struggle, Armenians of that period made diplomatic efforts, at first turning to Europe, then to Russia. Such political and war leaders as Israel Ori, archimandrite Minas, the Catholicos of Gandsasar Yesai Jalalian, the iuzbashis (commanders of hundred; the capitans) Avan Yuzbashi and Tarkhan became leaders of the people.
The political instability in Persia in the 18th century created a threat to its integrity. Both
In 1722,
That year Ottoman troops invaded. Their main victims were the Karabakh Armenian population, who, headed by meliks, rose to struggle for their independence, never having received the promised support from the Russian side. Yet, Peter the Great's march gave a new impulse to the struggle of the Armenians.
In the 1720s the host formed in Karabakh concentrated in three military camps or Skhnakhs (fortified place). The first of these, called the Great Skhnakh, was in the Mrav Mountains near the Tartar River. The second, Pokr (Minor) Skhnakh, was on the slope of Mount Kirs in the province of Varanda, and the third, in the province of Kapan. Shkhnakhs, i.e. the Armenian host, possessed absolute power. They were a people's army with the council of military leaders and the Catholicos of Gandsasar also entering it and having a great influence. Proceeding from the demands of wartime, meliks shared their power with iuzbashis, all of them having equal rights and obligations at the military councils. The Armenian host headed by Catholicos Yesai and the iuzbashis Avan and Tarkhan resisted the Ottoman regular army for a long time.
In 1733, the Armenians, encouraged
In gratitude for services rendered, Nadir Shah freed the Khamsa meliks from the Ganja khans and appointed over them as ruler Avan, melik Dizak, a primary leader of the conspiracy of 1733, giving him the title of khan. However, Avan Khan soon died.[53]
Karabakh khanate
In 1747,
Melik of
The meliks did not wish to reconcile themselves to the new situation. They desperately hoped for the aid of the Russians and sent letters to
Ibrahim Khalil Khan, the son of Panah Ali Khan, made the Karabakh khanate a semi-independent princedom, which only nominally recognized Persian rule.[59]
In 1797, Karabakh suffered the invasion of armies of Persian shah
In 1813, the Karabakh Khanate, Georgia, and Dagestan became possessions of
Russian rule
The Russian Empire annexed the Karabakh Khanate in 1806 and consolidated its power over the area following the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813 and Treaty of Turkmenchay of 1828. Following two Russo-Persian wars, Persia recognized the Karabakh Khanate and many other khanates as part of the Russian Empire.
Russia dissolved the Karabakh khanate in 1822. A survey prepared by the Russian imperial authorities in 1823, a year later, and several years before the 1828 Armenian migration from Persia to the newly established Armenian Province, shows that all Armenians of Karabakh compactly resided in its highland portion, i.e. on the territory of the five traditional Armenian principalities, and constituted an absolute demographic majority on those lands. The survey's more than 260 pages recorded that the district of
During the 19th century, Shusha became one of the most significant cities of Transcaucasia. By 1900 Susha was the fifth city by size of Transcaucasia; it had a theatre, printing houses, etc.; manufacture of carpets and trade were especially developed, having been there for a long time. According to the first Russian-held census of 1823, conducted by Russian officials Yermolov and Mogilevsky, Shusha had 1,111 (72.5%) Azerbaijani families and 421 (27.5%) Armenian families. The census of 1897 showed 25,656 inhabitants, 56.5% of them Armenian and 43.2% Azerbaijani.[70]
During the first Russian revolution in 1905, bloody armed clashes between Armenians and Azerbaijanis took place in the fields.
October Revolution, 1917
The
Following the
The Armenians, under Russian control, held a national congress in October 1917. The convention in
1918-1921 Armenian-Azerbaijani dispute
Through 1918-1919,
Independent states, May 1918
In May 1918 the Transcaucasian Republuc dissolved into separate states:
- Democratic Republic of Armenia
- Azerbaijan Democratic Republic
- Georgian Democratic Republic
Both Armenia and Azerbaijan claimed Mountainous Karabakh and had strong rationales for doing so.
Armenia regarded Mountainous Karabakh as its natural frontier, the easternmost part of the Armenian Plateau, sharply contrasted with the Azerbaijani steppes to the east, so losing Karabakh would destroy the physical unity of Armenia. Armenia also appealed to the historical ties of Karabakh to Armenia as the last stronghold of Armenian statehood and the cradle of Armenian nationalism in the modern era. Armenians constituted a majority in the mountainous parts of Karabakh. Strategically Armenia considered Karabakh a barrier between Azerbaijan and Turkey.[73]
Similarly, Azerbaijan appealed to history, as despite having had some degree of autonomy, Mountainous Karabakh had been part of the Muslim khanates of
Ethnic and religious tension, March 1918
In March 1918, ethnic and religious tension grew and Armenian-Azeri conflict began in
The government of Azerbaijan declared the annexation of Karabakh into the newly established
Armenian "People's Government", July 1918
On July 22, 1918, the First Congress of the Armenians of Karabakh convened and declared the independence of Nagorno-Karabakh,
- Foreign and internal affairs – Yeghishe Ishkhanian
- Military affairs – Harutiun Toumanian
- Communications – Martiros Aivazian
- Finances – Movses Ter-Astvatsatrian
- Agronomy and justice – Arshavir Kamalyan
The prime minister of the government was Yeghishe Ishkhanian, the secretary, Melikset Yesayan. The government published the newspaper "Westnik Karabakha".[80]
In September, at the 2nd Congress of the Armenians of Karabakh, the People's Government was renamed the Armenian National Council of Karabakh.[citation needed] In essence, however, its structure remained the same:
- Justice Department – Commissar Arso Hovhannisian, Levon Vardapetian
- Military Department – Harutiun Tumian (Tumanian)
- Department of Education – Rouben Shahnazarian
- Refugees Department – Moushegh Zakharian
- Control Department – Anoush Ter-Mikaelian
- Department of Foreign Affairs – Ashot Melik-Hovsepian.[81][82]
On July 24, the Declaration of the People's government of Karabakh was adopted, which set forth the objectives of the newly established state power.[83]
Armistice of Mudros, October 1918
On October 31, 1918, the Ottoman Empire admitted defeat in World War I, and its troops retreated from Transcaucasia. British forces replaced them in December and took the area under their control.
British mission
The government of Azerbaijan tried to capture Nagorno-Karabakh with the help of the British. The new borders of Transcaucasia could not be defined without the agreement of Great Britain. Stating that the fate of the disputed territories must be solved at the
The policy of the Allied powers on Transcaucasia had a pro-Azerbaijani bent. The Karabakhian problem was dragged out, on the calculation that the military-political situation would become favourable to Azerbaijan, with a change in the ethnic structure of Nagorno-Karabakh.
On January 15, 1919, the Azerbaijani government, with "the knowledge of the British command" appointed Khosrov bey Sultanov governor-general of Nagorno-Karabakh, simultaneously giving an ultimatum to the Karabakhian National Council to recognize the power of Azerbaijan. On February 19, 1919, the 4th Congress of the Armenian population of Karabakh convened in Shushi, and decisively rejected this ultimatum and protested the appointment of Sultanov as governor-general. The resolution adopted by the congress said: "Insisting on the principle of the self-determination of a people, the Armenian population of Karabakh respects the right of the neighbouring Turkish people to self-determination and, together with this, decisively protests against the attempts of the Azerbaijani government to eliminate this principle in relation to Nagorno-Karabakh, which never will concede to Azerbaijani power over it".[84]
In the connection with the appointment of Sultanov the British mission came out with an official notification, which stated, that "by the British command's consent Dr. Khosrov Bek Sultanov is appointed provisional governor of Zangezur, Shusha, Jivanshir and Jebrail useds [sic]. The British Mission finds it necessary to confirm that belonging of the mentioned districts to one or another unit must be solved at a Peace Conference".[85][clarification needed]
The National Council of Karabakh answered:
The National Council of the Armenians of Karabakh with its full complement, in common with the commanders of all the districts of Karabakh, having discussed the appointment of a general-governor by the government of Azerbaijan, came to the conclusion that Armenian Karabakh cannot accept this, as the Armenian people of Karabakh consider dependence on the government of Azerbaijan, in whatever form it might be, unacceptable due to the violence and violations of rights which the Armenian people has been systematically subjected to by the Azerbaijani government until recently ... Armenian Karabakh showed the whole world that it in fact did not recognize and does not recognize within its borders the power of the Azerbaijani government ... Since the British command recognizes Armenian Karabakh as a territory that is not subordinated to any state prior to the solution of the Peace Conference, therefore and in particular with respect to Azerbaijan, the National Council considers the appointment of a British general-governor the only acceptable form for the government of the Armenian Karabakh, and it asks the mission to solicit the Supreme English Command".[86]
However in spite of the Karabakhi protests the British continued to assist and support the Azerbaijani government to incorporate Armenian Karabakh into Azerbaijan. The British troops' commander in Baku, Colonel Digby Shuttleworth stated to the Karabakhian people:
I warn that any excesses against Azerbaijan and its general-governor are carried out against England. We are strong enough to force you to obey".[87][clarification needed]
Shusha, April 1919
Unable to force Nagorno-Karabakh to its knees by threats or force, Schatelwort personally arrived in Shusha late in April 1919 to compel the National Council of Karabakh to recognize the power of Azerbaijan. On April 23 in Shusha, the Fifth Congress convened, and rejected Schatelwort's demands. The congress declared that
"Azerbaijan has always acted as the helper and the accomplice in the atrocities carried out by Turkey concerning Armenians in general and Karabakhs of Armenians in particular."
It accused Azerbaijan of robbery, murder and hunting down Armenians on the roads, and said that it "aspire(d) to destroy Armenians as a unique cultural element, gravitating not to the East, but to Europe". Therefore, the resolution declared, any program having any attachment to Azerbaijan was unacceptable to Armenians.[88]
Rejected by the Fifth Congress, Sultanov decided to subordinate Nagorno-Karabakh by force. Almost the entire army of Azerbaijan gathered at the Nagorno-Karabakh borders. At the beginning of June Sultanov tried to blockade the Armenian quarters of Shusha, attacked Armenian positions, and organized pogroms in order Armenian villages. Nomads under the leadership of Sultanov's brother completely massacred the villagers of Gayballu, 580 Armenians total.[89][90] English troops withdrew from Nagorno-Karabakh to give the Azerbaijani troops a free hand.
The Sixth Congress of Karbaghi Armenians, which representatives of the English Mission and Azerbaijani government attended, was to discuss relations between Nagorno-Karabakh and Azerbaijan prior to the Peace Conference in Paris. However the English mission and the government of Azerbaijan arrived at the Congress after it had finished its work and negotiations did not take place. To find out whether Nagorno-Karabgh would be able to defend its independence in case of war, the Congress established a commission which came to the conclusion that the Karabakhians could not. Therefore the Congress, under the threat of armed assault from Azerbaijan, felt compelled to start negotiations.
Peace conference, August 1919
Eager to gain time to gather its forces, the Congress convened on August 13, 1919 and concluded an agreement on August 22, under which Nagorno-Karabgh considered itself within the borders of the Azerbaijani Republic pending the solution of the problem at the Peace Conference in Paris. However the Azerbaijani armies were in peacetime status. Azerbaijan cannot enter into area of an army without the permission of National Council. Disarmament of the population stopped until the peace conference.[91]
In February, Azerbaijan started to focus around Karabakh military and irregular groups. The Karabakh Armenians declared that Sultanov had “organized large gangs of Tatars, Kurds, prepare(d) grandiose massacre of Armenians (…) On roads kill travellers, rape women, steal the cattle. Proclaimed the economic blockade of Karabakh. Sultanov had demanded the entry of garrisons into the heart of Armenian Karabakh: Varanda, Dzraberd, and broken the agreement of VII Congress".[92]
1920–1921
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On February 19, 1920, Sultanov demanded that the National Council of the Karabakhi Armenians "urgently ... solve the question of the final incorporation of Karabakh into Azerbaijan".[93]
The Eighth Congress of Karabakhi Armenians from February 23 to March 4, 1920 rejected Sultanov's demand. The Congress accused Sultanov of numerous infringements of the peace agreement, entry of armies into Karabakh without the permission of the National Council and organizing murders of Armenians, in particular the massacre on February 22 in Khankendy, Askeran and on the Shusha-Evlakh road.[94]
However, in all these events, the aspirations and wishes of the Azerbaijani population of Karabakh were continuously violated by Armenian inhabitants "who had no right to represent in its Congress the will of the entire population of the region"[93]
In accordance with the decision of the Congress the diplomatic and military representatives of the Allies, or Entente states, three Transcaucasian republics and the provisional governor-general were informed that "the repetition of these events will compel the Armenians of Nagorno- Karabakh to turn to the appropriate means for defense."[95][96][97][98]
Nagorno-Karabakh war 1920
In March–April 1920 there was a short war between Azerbaijan and Armenia for Nagorno-Karabakh. It began on March 22 (
In response Azerbaijanis burned down the Armenian part of Shusha and massacred its population.
The massacre and expulsion of Shushi's majority Armenian population was the largest escalation of the conflict to date.[102][103][104][105] Armenian sources give different numbers for Armenian casualties, from 500 persons in R. Hovannisian [106] to 35,000; most say 20–30 thousand. Estimates for the number of the burned homes ranged from R. Hovannisian's two thousand to the more usual figure of seven thousand.[107] According to the Greater Soviet Encyclopedia, 20% of the population of Nagorno-Karabakh was lost in the fighting. That amounts to 30,000, mostly Armenians, who were 94% of the population of the area.[108][109]
The Paris Peace Conference did not resolve the Transcaucasian territorial disputes, so Armenia decided to liberate Karabakh from Azerbaijan. An uprising in Karabakh, timed to coincide with Azerbaijani Novruz celebrations, failed due to poor coordination. Azerbaijani garrisons remained in Shushi and neighboring Khankend, and a pogrom followed in Shusha. Azerbaijani soldiers and residents burned and looted half of the city, murdering, raping and expelling its Armenian inhabitants.
After the uprising, the Armenian government ordered its forces under Garegin Nzhdeh and Dro Kanayan to help the Karabakh rebels, and Azerbaijan moved its army west to crush the Armenian resistance and cut off any reinforcements, despite the threat of the approaching 11th Red Army of Bolshevik Russia from the north.[110] By Azerbaijan's Sovietization barely a month after the uprising began, Azerbaijani forces were able to maintain control over the central cities of Karabakh, Shusha and Khankend, whilst its immediate surroundings were in the control of local partisans and Armenian army reinforcements.[111] Since the Armenian government had explicitly ordered Dro not to engage the Red Army, he was unable to capture Shusha, where the Red Army had replaced its Azerbaijani defenders. Eventually the Bolshevik army overwhelmed the Armenian army detachments and drove them from the region. The fears of the Armenians of Karabakh were alleviated by virtue of returning to the stability of Russian control.[112]
Armenian declaration, April 1920
In April 1920, the Ninth Congress of the Karabakhi Armenians was held and proclaimed Nagorno-Karabakh part of Armenia. The concluding document reads:
- "To consider the agreement, which was concluded with the government of Azerbaijan on behalf of the Seventh Congress of Karabakh, violated by the latter, in view of the organized attack of Azerbaijani troops on the civilian Armenian population in Shusha and villages.
- To proclaim the joining of Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia as an essential part of Armenia".[95]
But, with the direct intervention of Russian troops, Azerbaijan regained control of the area.
Soviet era, 1921–1991
On July 4, 1921, the Plenum of the Caucasian Bureau of the
"The Soviet Union created the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region within Azerbaijan in 1924 when over 94 percent of the region's population was Armenian. (The term Nagorno-Karabakh originates from the Russian for "mountainous Karabakh.") As the Azerbaijani population grew, the Karabakh Armenians chafed under the discriminatory rule, and by 1960 hostilities had begun between the two populations of the region."
— Azerbaijan, A Country Study.
For 65 years of the NKAO's existence, the Karabakh Armenians felt they were restricted by Azerbaijan. Armenian discontent stemmed from Azerbaijan severing ties between the oblast and Armenia and pursuing a policy of cultural de-Armenization, planned Azeri settlement, squeezing the Armenian population out of the NKAO and neglecting its economic needs.[118] The census of 1979 showed 162,200 inhabitants of Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region, of whom 123,100 Armenians (75.9%) and 37,300 Azerbaijani (22.9%).[119] Armenians compared this to the data from 1923 — 94% Armenian. In addition they noted that "as of 1980 in Nagorno-Karabakh 85 Armenian villages (30%) have been liquidated and no Azerbaijani villages at all."[120] Armenians also accused the government of Azerbaijan of a “purposeful policy of discrimination and replacement". They believed that Baku's plan was to supersede absolutely all Armenians from Nagorno-Karabakh.
Azerbaijani residents of the NKAO, meanwhile, complained of discrimination by the Armenian majority of the autonomous oblast and of economic marginalization.[121] Thomas De Waal in his ‘’Black Garden’’ points out that NKAO was economically worse off than Armenia SSR. However, he noted elsewhere, economically Azerbaijan SSR overall had the most poverty in the South Caucasus. Nevertheless, NKAO's economic indicators were better than Azerbaijan's as a whole, a possible motivation for Karabakh Armenians to join Armenia SSR.[122] When the dissolution of the Soviet Union began in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the question of Nagorno-Karabakh re-emerged. On February 20, 1988, the Oblast Soviet of the NKAO weighed up the results of an unofficial referendum on the reattachment of Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia, held in the form of a petition signed by 80,000 people. On the basis of that referendum, the Oblast Soviet of Nagorno-Karabakh adopted appeals to the Supreme Soviets of the USSR, Azerbaijan, and Armenia, asking them to authorize the secession of Karabakh from Azerbaijan and its attachment to Armenia.[118]
It caused indignation among the neighboring Azerbaijan population, which began to gather in crowds to go and "put things in order" in Nagorno-Karabakh. On February 24, 1988, a direct confrontation occurred on the border of Nagorno-Karabakh near
A similar attack on Azerbaijanis occurred in the Armenian towns of Spitak,[125] and Gugark, during the Gugark pogrom[126] and others. Azerbaijani sources put the number of Azerbaijanis killed in clashes in Armenia at 216 total, including 57 women, five infants and 18 children of different ages.[118] The KGB of Armenia, however, said that it had tracked the people from the Azerbaijani list-of-dead and that the majority of them had previously died, were living in other regions of the USSR, or died in the earthquake of 1988 in Spitak; the Armenian KGB said 25 had been killed – an initially unchallenged figure.[127][128]
Large numbers of refugees left Armenia and Azerbaijan as pogroms began against the minority populations of each of the two countries. In the fall of 1989, intensified inter-ethnic conflict in and around Nagorno-Karabakh led Moscow to grant Azerbaijani authorities greater leeway in controlling that region. The Soviet policy backfired, however, when a joint session of the
In a December 1991 referendum, boycotted by most of the local Azerbaijanis, the Armenian population, still a majority in Nagorno-Karabakh, approved the creation of an independent state. However, the Constitution of the USSR was the instrument in accordance with which only the fifteen Soviet Republics could vote for independence and Nagorno-Karabakh was not one of the Soviet Republics. A Soviet proposal for enhanced autonomy for Nagorno-Karabakh within Azerbaijan satisfied neither side and subsequently led to the eruption of war between Armenia-backed Nagorno-Karabakh and Azerbaijan.
First Nagorno-Karabakh War
The struggle over Nagorno-Karabakh escalated after both Armenia and Azerbaijan attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. In the post-Soviet power vacuum, military action between Azerbaijan and Armenia was heavily influenced by the
Both sides used
According to
By the end of 1993, the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh had caused thousands of casualties and created hundreds of thousands of refugees on both sides. In a national address in November 1993, Əliyev stated that 16,000 Azerbaijani troops had died and 22,000 had been injured in nearly six years of fighting. The UN estimated that just under one million
In 1993, the
Fighting continued into early 1994, with Azerbaijani forces reportedly winning some engagements and regaining some territory lost in previous months. In January 1994, Əliyev pledged that in the coming year occupied territory would be liberated and Azerbaijani refugees would return to their homes. At that point, Armenian forces held an estimated 14 percent of the area recognized as Azerbaijan, with Nagorno-Karabakh proper comprising 5 percent.[144]
However, during the first three months of 1994 the
As a result of the first Nagorno-Karabakh war, Azerbaijanis were driven out of Nagorno-Karabakh and territories adjacent to Nagorno-Karabakh. With the support of Soviet/Russian military forces, Azerbaijanis forced tens of thousands of Armenians out of Shahumyan region. Armenians remained in control of the Soviet-era autonomous region, and a strip of land called the Lachin corridor linking it with the Republic of Armenia, as well as seven surrounding districts of Azerbaijan. The Shahumyan region remained under the control of Azerbaijan.
2010s
On May 23, 2010, people in the territory went to polling stations to elect the state's parliament; more than 70 international observers were reported as attending.[145]
2023
Three
On 11 July, Azerbaijan's State Border Service temporarily shuts down the Lachin corridor, the only road between Armenia and the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region, alleging smuggling by the Armenian Red Cross Society.[148] The corridor is reopened on 17 July to allow the Red Cross to conduct medical evacuations from Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia amid protests over the corridor's closure on July 11 and humanitarian concerns.[149]
On 9 September, Samvel Shahramanyan, the sole candidate, is elected in the territory's presidential elections in a 22–1 vote out of 23 deputies present.[150][151]
On 19 September, Azerbaijan launches an offensive on Nagorno-Karabakh after blaming Armenian sabotage groups for an incident in which four Azerbaijani police officers and two civilians were killed by separate mine explosions in the region.[152] As a result of the offensive, Azerbaijan demands the withdrawal of ethnic Armenian forces from the region,[153] with the Presidential Administration of Azerbaijan announcing that Armenia must hand over all weapons present in the territory in order to stop "anti-terrorism" activities.[154]
Azerbaijan claims its forces broke through the contact line and captured over 60 military posts in Nagorno-Karabakh. Artsakh forces, however, deny this.[155] According to Republic of Artsakh government officials, 25 people, including a child, are killed due to the fighting, and 138 others are injured. Azerbaijan claims that one civilian was killed by shelling in Shusha.[156] It is also reported that Azerbaijani forces struck Stepanakert, the de facto capital of Nagorno-Karabakh, with artillery, damaging several residential buildings.[157]
On the next day, 20 September, Armenian separatist forces in Nagorno-Karabakh surrender and agree to a Russian proposal for a ceasefire with Azerbaijan effective from 1 pm on Wednesday.[158] In response, Azerbaijan calls for the "total surrender" of ethnic Armenian forces in Nagorno-Karabakh, and orders the Republic of Artsakh government to dissolve itself, saying its military offensive will continue until the region is under its full control.[159]
Peace talks between Azerbaijan and the separatists are set for the following day in Yevlakh. Russia's peacekeeping contingent are reported to have an assisting role in coordinating the ceasefire.[160] As a result of the surrender, thousands of Artsakh residents gather at Stepanakert Airport, where some Russian peacekeepers are stationed, seeking evacuation.[161]
On 21 September, delegates of Azerbaijan and Artsakh meet in the Azeri city of Yevlakh. No formal agreement is adopted after two hours of talks.[162]
The government of Artsakh announced on 24 September that most of its population will leave following Azerbaijan's takeover of the territory with Armenia confirming that 1,050 refugees from Artsakh have arrived in the country.[163] The number of refugees fleeing to Armenia from Artsakh increases to 6,500 by the next day.
By 27 September, the number of refugees fleeing Artsakh to Armenia increased to 50,243, comprising more than a third of the region's population.[164] Azerbaijan also reports that day that 192 of its troops were killed and more than 500 others were injured during last week's offensive on Nagorno-Karabakh.[165] Former State Minister of Artsakh Ruben Vardanyan is arrested by Azerbaijan after attempting to cross the border into Armenia.[166]
On 29 September, Samvel Shahramanyan, president of the breakaway Republic of Artsakh, signs a decree to dissolve all state institutions of Artsakh beginning at the start of 2024.[167]
On 3 October, the number of refugees fleeing Artsakh to Armenia reached 100,617, which is the majority of the region's population.[168] Davit Ishkhanyan and three former presidents of Artsakh, Arkadi Ghukasyan, Bako Sahakyan and Arayik Harutyunyan, were detained by the State Security Service of Azerbaijan and brought to Baku.[169][170]
Timeline
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Starting Date | Sovereign | State/Region | Artsakh Proper |
---|---|---|---|
592 BC [171] | Iran (Medes) | Unknown (Urtekhini?[172]) | |
549 BC | Iran (Achaemenid dynasty)[173] | ||
321 BC | |||
189 BC [174] | |||
Armenia (Artaxiad dynasty)[175] | Province of Artsakh of the Kingdom of Armenia 189 BC to 387 AD [note 1]
| ||
Sophene and Kingdom of Commagene - Tigranes the Great conquered these territories | |||
65 BC [176] | Rome | ( Tigranes II of Armenia becomes a client king of Rome
| |
53 BC [177] | Persia (Arsacid dynasty) defeats Rome at the Battle of Carrhae
|
Armenia (Artaxiad dynasty) - Artavasdes II becomes king of Armenia. | |
36 BC | Rome | Mark Antony begins Parthian campaign[178] Rebellion of King Zober of Albania defeated. | |
33 BC | Rome | Armenia (Artaxiad dynasty) | |
36 | Iran (Arsacid dynasty) | ||
47 | |||
51 [179] | Iberia (Pharnavazid dynasty )
| ||
58 | Armenia (Arsacid dynasty) | ||
62 | Vologases I invade Armenia, unsuccessfully besiege Romans in Tigranocerta .
| ||
63 | Rome: Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo invades Armenia and defeats Tiridates I, who accepts Roman sovereignty. Parthia withdraws. | ||
64 | Iran (Arsacid dynasty) | ||
114 [180] | Rome | Roman Armenia Emperor Trajan defeats the Parthians and overruns Armenia | |
118 | Armenia (Arsacid dynasty) | ||
252 | Iran (Sassanian dynasty) | Armenia (Arsacid dynasty) | |
287 | Rome: Diocletian signs peace treaty with King Bahram II of Persia, installs the pro-Roman Arsacid Tiridates III as king in western Armenia. | ||
363 | to Sassanids. | Corduene and Arzanene | |
Albania (Mihranid dynasty )
| |||
376 | Armenia (Arsacid dynasty) | ||
387 | Iran (Sassanian dynasty) | ||
Albania (Mihranid dynasty ) |
with Sasanian help seizes from Armenia the entire right bank of the river Kura up to the river Araxes | includes Artsakh and Utik.[181] | |
Division of Greater Armenia between Persia and Byzantium | |||
654 | Arab Caliphate | Albania (Mihranid dynasty ),
| |
850 | Artsakh | ||
884 | Armenia (Bagratid dynasty) | Artsakh | |
1045 | Artsakh | ||
1063 | Seljuk Empire | Artsakh | |
1092 | Eldiguzids | ||
1124 | Georgia (Bagratid dynasty) | Eldiguzids | |
1201 | Zakarid dynasty )
| ||
1214 [182][183] | Hasan-Jalalyan dynasty )
| ||
1236 | Mongol Empire | ||
1256 | Ilkhanate | ||
1261 | Hasan-Jalalyan dynasty )
| ||
1360 | Karabakh | ||
1337 | Chobanids | ||
1357 | Jalayirids
| ||
1375 | Kara Koyunlu
| ||
1387 | Timurid Empire | ||
1409 | Kara Koyunlu
| ||
1468 | Ak Koyunlu | ||
1501 | Iran (Safavid dynasty) | Province of Karabakh
|
Melikdoms of Karabakh (Khamsa)[note 2] |
1583 | Ottoman Empire | ||
1603 | Iran (Safavid dynasty) | ||
1725 | |||
1736 | Iran (Afsharid dynasty) | ||
1747 [183] | Karabakh Khanate | ||
1751 | Iran (Zand dynasty) | ||
1797 | Iran (Qajar dynasty) | ||
1805-05 [183][note 3] | Russia (Romanov dynasty) | ||
1822 [183] | |||
1846 | Shemakha Governorate[note 4] | ||
1868 [183] | Elisabethpol Governorate
| ||
1917-11-11 | Transcaucasian Commissariat | ||
1918-04-22 | Transcaucasia[note 5] | ||
28 May 1918 [183] | First Republic of Armenia: Declaration of independence | Armenian rebels | |
1918-06-04 [note 6] | |||
1918-07-27 | People's Government of Karabakh | ||
1918-09 | Ottoman Empire |
| |
1918-10-30 [note 7] | British Empire | Mountainous Karabakh was placed under the jurisdiction of Azerbaijan until the final delimitation agreement would be reached at the Paris Peace Conference. | |
1919-08-22 [note 8] | |||
1919-08-23 [note 9] | |||
1920-03-04 [note 10] | Azerbaijan |
| |
1920-04-09 |
| ||
1920-04-13 [note 11] | |||
1920-04-22 [note 12] | |||
1920-04-28 [note 13] | |||
1920-05-12 [183] | Red Army 11th Red Army advances into Armenia on 29 November 1920; transfer of power on 2 December in Yerevan. | Azerbaijan SSR |
|
1920-05-26 | The final status of Mountainous Karabakh was still being debated. | ||
Dec. 1, 1920 [note 14] | |||
1921-07-04 [183][note 15] | |||
1922-03-12 | Azerbaijan SSR, | ||
1922-12-30 [183] | Soviet Union | ||
1923-07-07 [183][note 16] | Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast | ||
1936-12-05 | Azerbaijan SSR | ||
1991 | First Nagorno-Karabakh War
| ||
1991-04-30 [note 17] | |||
1991-09-02 [note 18] | |||
1991-11-26 [183][note 19] | |||
1994-05-12 [note 20] | De facto Artsakh, de jure Azerbaijan | ||
2020-09-27 | Second Nagorno-Karabakh War | ||
2020-11-10[note 21] |
Control over Russian peacekeeping forces.[187]
|
- ^ The exact date of the establishment of the Province of Artsakh is not known, but is believed to be sometime before 189 BC.
- Hasan-Jalalyan dynastybranches out sometime in the 16th century.
- ^ The Russian Empire occupies the lands, but they're formally annexed only in 1813 by the Treaty of Gulistan.
- ^ Shemakha Governorate was renamed to Baku Governorate in 1859.
- ^ The Transcaucasian Democratic Federal Republic was a multi-national entity established by Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian leaders.
- ^ Treaty of Batum
- ^ Armistice of Mudros
- ^ Seventh Assembly of Mountainous Karabakh
- ^ British withdrawal.
- ^ Eighth Assembly of Mountainous Karabakh
- ^ General Dro (Drastamat Kanayan) takes parts of Mountainous Karabakh on behalf of the Republic of Armenia.
- ^ Ninth Assembly of Mountainous Karabakh
- ^ Azerbaijan is invaded by the Red Army.
- revolutionary committee declares Mountainous Karabakh to be transferred to Armenian SSR.
- ^ Kavbiuro decides to leave Mountainous-Karabakh within Azerbaijan SSR.
- ^ Declared, and then implemented in November of 1924.
- ^ Operation Ring
- ^ The Armenians of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast declare their independence.
- ^ Azerbaijan abolishes the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast.
- ^ Bishkek Protocol ceasefire.
- ^ 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement.
See also
- Demographics of the Republic of Artsakh
- List of massacres in Azerbaijan
- Republic of Artsakh
- Timeline of Artsakh history
References
- ^ Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies: JSAS., Volume 8. University of Michigan, 1997, p 54.
- ^ "The Nagorno–Karabakh Republic Ceased to Exist". January 1, 2024.
- ^ Robert H. Hewsen, "Ethno-History and the Armenian Influence upon the Caucasian Albanians", in Thomas J. Samuelian, ed., Classical Armenian Culture: Influences and Creativity. Pennsylvania: Scholars Press, 1982. "What do we know of the native population of these regions — Arc'ax and Utik — prior to the Armenian conquest? Unfortunately, not very much. Greek, Roman, and Armenian authors together provide us with the names of several peoples living there, however — Utians, in Otene, Mycians, Caspians, Gargarians, Sakasenians, Gelians, Sodians, Lupenians, Balas[ak]anians, Parsians and Parrasians — and these names are sufficient to tell us that, whatever their origin, they were certainly not Armenian. Moreover, although certain Iranian peoples must have settled here during the long period of Persian and Median rule, most of the natives were not even Indo-Europeans."
- ^
Susan M. Sherwin-White, Amalie Kuhrt. From Samarkhand to Sardis: A New Approach to the Seleucid Empire, p. 16.
"There are many problems over the boundaries of Seleucid Armenia, which have not be studied, but could be illuminated by the accounts of the expansion of the Armenian Kingdom beyond the limits of “Armenia” after Commagene; in the north, Iberia in the Lower Caucasus, north of the river Araxes and Lake Sevan, and western Media Atropatene — roughly equivalent to modern Azerbaijan; in the north-west, separating Armenia from the Black Sea, were independent tribes"
- ^ George A. Bournoutian. A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present), p. 33. "After the death of Alexander, the Armenians maintained this stance towards the governors imposed by the Seleucids. The Yervandunis gained control of the Arax Valley, reached Lake Sevan, and constructed a new capital at Yervandashat."
- ^ Elisabeth Bauer-Manndorff. Armenia: Past and Present, p. 54. "Armenia Major, under the rule of the Ervantids consisted of the central area east of the upper Euphrates, around Lake Van and the Araxes as far as Lake Sevan."
- ^ Robert H. Hewsen, "Ethno-History and the Armenian Influence upon the Caucasian Albanians", in Thomas J. Samuelian, ed., Classical Armenian Culture: Influences and Creativity. Pennsylvania: Scholars Press, 1982. "From Strabo we learn that under King Artashes (188-ca. 161 B. C.), the Armenians expanded in all directions at the expense of their neighbors. Specifically, at this time they acquired Caspiane and 'Phaunitis', the second of which can only be a copyist's error for Saunitis, i.e. the principality of Siwnik. Thus, it was only under Artashes, in the second century B. C., that the Armenians conquered Siwnik' and Caspiane and, obviously, the lands of Arc'ax and Utik', which lay between them. These lands, we are told, were taken from the Medes. Mnac'akanyan's notion that these lands were already Armenian and were re-conquered by the Armenians at this time thus rests on no evidence at all and indeed contradicts what little we do know of Armenian expansion to the east."
- ^ Trever, Kamilla (1959). Очерки по истории и культуре Кавказской Албании IV в. до н. э.- VII в. н. э. [Essays on the History and Culture of Caucasian Albania, IV BC-VII AD.].
- ^ Новосельцев, А. П. "К вопросу о политической границе Армении и Кавказской Албании в античный период" [On the Political Border of Armenia and Caucasian Albania in Antique Period]. Кавказ и Византия [Caucasus and Byzantium] (1): 10–18. Archived from the original on February 26, 2020. Retrieved October 21, 2020.
- ^ Thomas J. Samuelian. "Armenian Origins: An Overview of Ancient and Modern Sources and Theories" Archived January 17, 2017, at the Wayback Machine (PDF).
- ^ Movses Khorenatsi. "History of Armenia" Archived October 12, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. I.12, II.8.
- ^ Movses Kaghankatvatsi, "History of Aluank" Archived September 25, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. I.4.
- ^ "Movses Khorenatsi, "History of Armenia," I.12". Archived from the original on September 16, 2019. Retrieved March 26, 2008.
- ^ Movses Kaghankatvatsi, "History of Aluank" Archived September 25, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. I.15.
- ^ Strabo, "Geography", 11.14.4 Archived December 7, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Кавказ Мемо.Ру :: kavkaz-uzel.ru :: Армения, Нагорный Карабах | На территории Нагорного Карабаха обнаружены руины древнего армянского города". Archived from the original on September 12, 2007. Retrieved August 3, 2012.
- ^ "Историко-политические аспекты карабахского конфликта". Archived from the original on May 6, 2019. Retrieved October 1, 2006.
- ISBN 1856492885. 9781856492881
- ^ Claudius Ptolemaeus. Geography, 5, 12
- ^ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, 6, 39
- ^ Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft. Volume I. Stuttgart 1894". p. 1303
- ^ "Nagorno Karabakh: History". Archived from the original on October 18, 2020. Retrieved August 3, 2012.
- ^ "Faustus of Byzantium, IV, 50; V,12". Archived from the original on September 25, 2019. Retrieved August 3, 2012.
- from the original on February 6, 2021. Retrieved February 10, 2022 – via persée.fr.
- National Geographic Magazine, March 2004
- ^ John Noble, Michael Kohn, Danielle Systermans. Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Lonely Planet; 3 edition (May 1, 2008), p. 307
- ^ "Elishe. History, 276–277". Archived from the original on March 28, 2013. Retrieved September 11, 2006.
- ^ Hewsen, Robert H. (August 17, 2011). "AVARAYR". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on November 17, 2015. Retrieved February 11, 2022.
So spirited was the Armenian defence, however, that the Persians suffered enormous losses as well. Their victory was pyrrhic and the king, faced with troubles elsewhere, was forced, at least for the time being, to allow the Armenians to worship as they chose.
- ISBN 1560986298.
The Armenian defeat in the Battle of Avarayr in 451 proved a pyrrhic victory for the Persians. Though the Armenians lost their commander, Vartan Mamikonian, and most of their soldiers, Persian losses were proportionately heavy, and Armenia was allowed to remain Christian.
- ^ Some sources give his name as Vachagan II
- ^ Mkrtchian, Shahen. Historical and Architectural Monuments of Nagorno Karabakh. Yerevan: Hayastan Publishing House, 1988, pp. 117-121
- ^ History and Architecture Archived February 11, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, Armenian Apostolic Church Monastery
- ^ Abū-Dulaf Misʻar Ibn Muhalhil's Travels in Iran (circa A.D. 950) / Ed. and trans. by Vladimir Minorsky. — Cairo University Press, 1955. — p. 74: Khajin (Armenian Khachen) was an Armenian principality immediately south of Barda'a.
- ^ Howorth, Henry Hoyle (1876). History of the Mongols: From the 9th to the 19th Century Longmans, Green, and Co. p. 14
- ^
"Russian scholar V. Shnirelman: Khachen was a medieval Armenian feudal principality in the territory of modern Karabakh, which played a significant role in the political history of Armenia and the region in the 10th–16th centuries".
{{cite web}}
: Missing or empty|url=
(help) - ^ url=http://www.vehi.net/istoriya/armenia/albanskymif.html#_ftn3 Archived April 4, 2013, at the Wayback Machine В.А. Шнирельман, Албанский миф, 2006, Библиотека «Вeхи»
- ^ "Armenia" Archived April 28, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopædia Britannica. "A few native Armenian rulers survived for a time in the Kiurikian kingdom of Lori, the Siuniqian kingdom of Baghq or Kapan, and the principates of Khachen (Artzakh) and Sasun."
- ^ Movses Kaghankatvatsi. History of Aghuank. Critical text and introduction by Varag Arakelyan. Matenadaran Institute of Ancient Manuscripts after Mesrop Mashtots. Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1983, 2.17, 3.19-22
- ^ Якобсон, А. (1991). "Из истории армянского средневекового зодчества (Гандзасарский монастырь XIII в.)". К освещению проблем истории и культуры Кавказской Албании и восточных провинций Армении: 447. Archived from the original on August 28, 2009. Retrieved September 19, 2009.
- ^ Анохин, Г. (1981). "Малый Кавказ". Физкультура испорт. Archived from the original on January 23, 2021. Retrieved February 13, 2022.
- ^ "А. Л. Якобсон, Из истории армянского средневекового зодчества (Гандзасарский монастырь)". Archived from the original on August 28, 2009. Retrieved September 19, 2009.
- ^ Якобсон, А. (1991). "Из истории армянского средневекового зодчества (Гандзасарский монастырь XIII в.)". К освещению проблем истории и культуры Кавказской Албании и восточных провинций Армении: 447. Archived from the original on August 28, 2009. Retrieved September 19, 2009.
- ^ Анохин, Г. (1981). "Малый Кавказ". Физкультура и спорт. Archived from the original on January 23, 2021. Retrieved February 13, 2022.
- ^ "Azerbaijan". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on November 15, 2019. Retrieved October 22, 2020.
- ^ ISBN 0-87003-140-6. Archivedfrom the original on January 13, 2023. Retrieved October 22, 2020.
This seasonal coexistence in the mountains of historical Karabakh with a sedentary Armenian population and a nomadic Turkic one, as well as some Kurdish, completely assimilated by Azerbaijanis in the 19th–20th centuries, arose a long time ago, simultaneously with the great movement of nomadic pastoralists into the plains of Azerbaijan."
Указанная ситуация сезонного сосуществования в горах исторического Карабаха оседлого армянского и кочевого тюркского населения, а также частично и курдского, полностью ассимилированного азербайджанцами в XIX—XX вв., возникла очень давно, одновременно с массовым проникновением кочевых скотоводов на равнины Азербайджана.
- ^
Yamskov, A. N. (June 22, 2014). "Ethnic Conflict in the Transcausasus: The Case of Nagorno-Karabakh". Theory and Society. 20 (5, Special Issue on Ethnic Conflict in the Soviet Union) (published October 1991): 650 – via JSTOR.
The Azeri conception of Karabakh as an inseparable part of Azerbaijan is based on other considerations than the oblast's ethnic composition. The Armenians have resided in Karabakh for a long time, and they represented an absolute majority of its population at the time that the autonomous oblast was formed. However, for centuries the entire high mountain zone of this region belonged to the nomadic Turkic herdsmen, from whom the Khans of Karabakh were descended. Traditionally, these direct ancestors of the Azeris of the Agdamskii raion (and of the other raions between the mountains of Karabakh and the Kura and Araks Rivers) lived in Karabakh for the four or five warm months of the year, and spent the winter in the Mil'sko-Karabakh plains. The descendants of this nomadic herding population therefore claim a historic right to Karabakh and consider it as much their native land as that of the settled agricultural population that lived there year-round.
- ^
Еремян, С. Т. (1961). "Армения накануне монгольского завоевания" [Armenia on the Eve of the Mongol Conquest]. Атлас Армянской ССР [The Atlas of Armenian SSR]. Yerevan. pp. 102–106.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ (in Armenian) Ulubabyan, Bagrat. «Ղարաբաղ» [Gharabagh]. Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1981, vol. 7, p. 26.
- ^ Minorsky, Vladimir (1943). Tadhkirt Al-muluk. p. 174.
- ^ Great Soviet Encyclopedia, "NKAO, Historical Survey", 3rd edition, translated into English, New York: Macmillan Inc., 1973.
- ^ Ghereghlou, Kioumars. "Cashing in on land and privilege for the welfare of the shah: monetisation of tiyul in early Safavid Iran and Eastern Anatolia". Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hung. 68 (1): 110.
- ^ Stepan Lisitsian. Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh; p. 44
- ^ a b c d "Raffi. Melikdoms of Khamsa". Archived from the original on September 27, 2011. Retrieved September 11, 2006.
- ^ Britannica Archived May 3, 2015, at the Wayback Machine: “In Mountainous Karabakh a group of five Armenian maliks (princes) succeeded in conserving their autonomy and maintained a short period of independence (1722–30) during the struggle between Persia and Turkey at the beginning of the 18th century; despite the heroic resistance of the Armenian leader David Beg, the Turks occupied the region but were driven out by the Persians under the general Nādr Qolī Beg (from 1736–47, Nādir Shah) in 1735.”
- ^ Encyclopaedia of Islam. Leiden: BRILL, 1986. vol. 1. p. 639-640: "The wars between the Ottomans and the Safawids were still to be fought on Armenian soil, and part of the Armenians of Adharbaydjan were later deported as a military security measure to Isfahan and elsewhere. Semi-autonomous seigniories survived, with varying fortunes, in the mountains of Karabagh, to the north of Adharbaydjan, but came to an end in the 18th century."
- ^ Cornell, Svante E. The Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict, Uppsala: Department of East European Studies, April 1999, pp. 3–4 Archived 2013-04-18 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ C. J. Walker, Armenia: Survival of a Nation, London 1990, p. 40.
- ^ (in Russian) Abbas-gulu Aga Bakikhanov. Golestan-i Iram Archived February 20, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ a b c d (in Russian) Mirza Adigezal bey. Karabakh-name, p. 48 Archived August 21, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b (in Russian) Mirza Jamal Javanshir Karabagi. The History of Karabakh Archived January 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Toumanoff, Cyril. "Manuel de généalogie et de chronologie pour l'histoire de la Caucasie Chrétienne (Arménie-Géorgie-Albanie)." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. London: University of London, Vol. 41, No. 2
- ^ "Yesai Hasan Jalalyan. History". Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved September 11, 2006.
- ^ Artsakh from Ancient Time Archived 2006-08-23 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Raffi, VII-VIII". Archived from the original on November 25, 2009. Retrieved September 10, 2006.
- ^ ЦГВИА, ф.52, оп. 2, д. 32, л.1, об. Подлинник
- ^ Artsakh's Principalities Archived 2006-08-21 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Description of the Karabakh province prepared in 1823 according to the order of the governor in Georgia Yermolov by state advisor Mogilevsky and colonel Yermolov 2nd" ("Opisaniye Karabakhskoy provincii sostavlennoye v 1823 g po rasporyazheniyu glavnoupravlyayushego v Gruzii Yermolova deystvitelnim statskim sovetnikom Mogilevskim i polkovnikom Yermolovim 2-m" in Russian), Tbilisi, 1866.
- ^ Bournoutian, George A. A History of Qarabagh: An Annotated Translation of Mirza Jamal Javanshir Qarabaghi's Tarikh-E Qarabagh. Costa Mesa, Calif.: Mazda Publishers, 1994, page 18
- ^ Исмаил-заде, Деляра Ибрагим-кызы. Население городов Закавказского края в XIX – первой половине ХХ века. М., «Наука», 1991
- ^ "Shusha". Brokhaus and Efron Ecyclopaedia, 1899.[permanent dead link]
- ^
Swietochowski, Tadeusz (1995). Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition. New York. p. 76.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^
Sbornik dokumentov i materialov (1992). Nagorny Karabakh 1918—1923. Yerevan. pp. 323–326.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Richard G. Hovannisian. The Republic of Armenia, Volume I: 1918-1919. — London: University of California Press, 1971, pp. 80-81
- ^ Yamskov, A. N. "Ethnic Conflict in the Transcausasus: The Case of Nagorno-Karabakh," Special Issue on Ethnic Conflict in the Soviet Union for the Theory and Society 20 (October 1991), pp. 649-650.
- ^ Richard G. Hovannisian. The Republic of Armenia, Volume I: 1918-1919. — London: University of California Press, 1971, pp. 81-82
- ^
ISBN 0-8305-0076-6
- ^ (in Russian) Michael Smith. Azerbaijan and Russia: Society and State: Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani National Memory Archived 2011-03-10 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Playing the 'Communal Card': Communal Violence and Human Rights" Archived October 11, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. Human Rights Watch.
- ^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Artsakh. "Karabakh: 1918-1921". Archived from the original on February 13, 2022. Retrieved February 13, 2022.
- ^ "глоссарий Н". Archived from the original on March 7, 2006. Retrieved October 1, 2006.
- ^ "In Alphabetic Order A". Archived from the original on August 7, 2014. Retrieved October 1, 2006.
- ^ "In Alphabetic Order P". Archived from the original on November 3, 2013. Retrieved October 1, 2006.
- ^ Нагорный Карабах в 1918–1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, p. 13, Document №8.
- ^ Нагорный Карабах в 1918–1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, p.79, Document №49.
- ^ Нагорный Карабах в 1918–1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, p. 62, Document №38.
- ^ Нагорный Карабах в 1918–1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, p. 73 Document №46.
- ^ Нагорный Карабах в 1918–1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, p.137 Document №84.
- ^ Нагорный Карабах в 1918–1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, pp.162–164 Document №105.
- ^ "Кавказское слово", 17.06.1919
- ^ Нагорный Карабах в 1918–1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, рр. 259, 273, Documents №№172, 180
- ^ Нагорный Карабах в 1918–1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, pp.323–326 Document №214.
- ^ Нагорный Карабах в 1918–1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, p.256 Document №376.
- ^ a b Нагорный Карабах в 1918–1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, p.257 Document №378.
- ^ Нагорный Карабах в 1918–1923 гг.: сборник документов и материалов. Ереван, 1992, p.257 Document №380.
- ^ a b "Artsakh in 1918–1920". Archived from the original on May 25, 2014. Retrieved May 24, 2014.
- ^ ""Nagorno-Karabakh Crisis", Public International Law and Policy Group and the New England Center for International Law and Policy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on September 2, 2000. Retrieved July 19, 2006.
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Tim Potier. Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia: A Legal Appraisal ISBN 90-411-1477-7
- ^ Cornell, Svante E. "The Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict, Uppsala": Department of East European Studies, April 1999 Archived 2013-04-18 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 9781856492881.
The city of Shushi, formerly the third largest city in Transcaucasia, saw its Armenian population decimated by the massacre of March 1920.
- ^ (in Russian)
A. Zubov,
Политическое будущее Кавказа: опыт ретроспективно-сравнительного анализа (Political future of the Caucasus) Archived March 25, 2019, at the Wayback Machine,
"Znamiya" journal, 2000, #4
"Британская администрация почему-то передала населенные армянами уезды Елизаветпольской губернии под юрисдикцию Азербайджана. Британский администратор Карабаха полковник Шательворт не препятствовал притеснениям армян, чинимым татарской администрацией губернатора Салтанова. Межнациональные трения завершились страшной резней, в которой погибла большая часть армян города Шуши. Бакинский парламент отказался даже осудить свершителей Шушинской резни, и в Карабахе вспыхнула война."
"The British administrator of Karabakh, Colonel D.I. Shuttleworth, did not interfere with the discrimination against Armenians byTatarian administration of governor Saltanov. The national clashes ended by the terrible massacres in which the most of Armenians in Shusha town perished. The Parliament in Bakurefused to even condemn those who carried out the massacres in Shusha and the war began in Karabakh." - ^ Бюллетень МИД НКР Archived 2005-10-27 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "The British administrator of Karabakh Col. Chatelword did not prevent discrimination against Armenians by the Tatar administration of Gov. Saltanov. The ethnic clashes ended with terrible massacres in which most Armenians in Shusha town perished. The Parliament in Baku refused to even condemn those responsible for the massacres in Shusha and war began in Karabakh.” A. Zubov (in Russian) А.Зубов Политическое будущее Кавказа: опыт ретроспективно-сравнительного анализа, журнал "Знамья", 2000, #4, http://magazines.russ.ru/znamia/2000/4/zubov.html Archived March 25, 2019, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "massacre of the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh's capital, Shushi (called Shusha by the Azerbaijanis)", Kalli Raptis, "Nagorno-Karabakh and the Eurasian Transport Corridor", https://web.archive.org/web/20110716225801/http://www.eliamep.gr/eliamep/files/op9803.PDF
- ^ "A month ago after the massacres of Shushi, on 19 April 1920, prime-ministers of England, France and Italy with participation of the representatives of Japan and USA collected in San-Remo..." Giovanni Guaita (in Russian) Джованни ГУАЙТА, Армения между кемалистским молотом и большевистской наковальней // «ГРАЖДАНИН», M., # 4, 2004 http://www.grazhdanin.com/grazhdanin.phtml?var=Vipuski/2004/4/statya17&number=%B94 Archived October 6, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
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- ^ Richard G. Hovannisian. The Republic of Armenia, Vol. III: From London to Sèvres, February–August 1920
- ^ Shusha – Encyclopedia, History, Geography and Biography Archived 2007-10-10 at archive.today
- ^ Большая Советская Энциклопедия. изд.1. т.41 М., 1939, стр. 191, ст. "Нагорно-Карабахская Автономная Область"
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De Waal, Thomas. Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan through Peace and War. New York: New York University Press, 2003. p. 130. ISBN 0-8147-1945-7
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Kadishev, A.B. (1961). Interventsia I Grazhdanskaja Vojna v Zakavkazje. Moscow. pp. 196–200.
{{cite book}}
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This shows that Urartu was very much in existence [...] down to 594 BC, [...]. It is possible that the last king of Urartu's reigh ended at about the same time or a little earlier. [...] in 590 BC, the Medes marched westwards [towards western Anatolia and Lydia].
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Certain authors estimate that when King Artashes (189–160 BC) brought about the unification of the Kingdom of Great Armenia, Caucasian tribes, probably Albanians, living in Artsakh and Utik were brought in by force. This thesis is said to be based on Strabo, but, in reality, when he describes the conquests Artashes carried out at the expense of the Medes and Iberians – and not the Albanians – he says nothing of Artsakh and Utik, since these provinces were certainly already a part of Armenia.
- ISBN 978-1789127485– via Google Books.isbn 9781789127485
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The Armenian king, Parthia's ally since the year 53 BC, appeared to submit.
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... we, the Turks, are present in Syria, Libya, we scare America, bargain with Russia, and now we are in Karabakh ...
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