Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic
Socialist Soviet Republic of Armenia (1920–1936) Հայաստանի Սոցիալիստական Խորհրդային Հանրապետություն (Armenian) Социалистическая Советская Республика Армения (Russian) Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1990) Հայկական Սովետական Սոցիալիստական Հանրապետություն (Armenian) Армянская Советская Социалистическая Республика (Russian) Republic of Armenia (1990–1991) Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն (Armenian) Республика Армения (Russian) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1920–1991 (1922–1936; Part of the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic) | |||||||||||||
Flag (1952–1990)
State emblem
(1937–1991) | |||||||||||||
Motto: Պրոլետարներ բոլոր երկրների, միացե՜ք ( independent state (1920–1922) Part of the Transcaucasian SFSR (1922–1936) Union republic (1936–1991) De facto independent state (1990–1991) | |||||||||||||
Capital and largest city | Yerevan | ||||||||||||
Official languages | Armenian (state language) Russian (official) | ||||||||||||
Religion |
| ||||||||||||
Demonym(s) | Armenian Soviet | ||||||||||||
Government |
| ||||||||||||
First Secretary | |||||||||||||
• 1920–1921 (first) | Gevork Alikhanyan | ||||||||||||
• 1990 (last)[1] | Vladimir Movsisyan | ||||||||||||
Head of state | |||||||||||||
• 1920–1921 (first) | Sarkis Kasyan | ||||||||||||
• 1990–1991 (last) | Levon Ter-Petrosyan | ||||||||||||
Head of government | |||||||||||||
• 1921–1922 (first) | Alexander Miasnikian | ||||||||||||
• 1991 (last) | Gagik Harutyunyan | ||||||||||||
Legislature | Transcaucasian SFSR | 30 December 1922 | |||||||||||
• Re-established | 5 December 1936 | ||||||||||||
20 February 1988 | |||||||||||||
• Independence declared, Renamed Republic of Armenia | 23 August 1990 | ||||||||||||
• Independence referendum | 21 September 1991 | ||||||||||||
• Independence recognized | 26 December 1991 | ||||||||||||
5 July 1995 | |||||||||||||
HDI (1991) | 0.648 medium | ||||||||||||
Currency | Soviet ruble (Rbl) (SUR) | ||||||||||||
Calling code | +7 885 | ||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||
Today part of | Armenia |
History of Armenia |
---|
Timeline • Origins • Etymology |
The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic,[a] also known as Soviet Armenia,[b] or simply Armenia,[d] was one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union, located in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Soviet Armenia bordered the Soviet Republics of Azerbaijan and Georgia and the independent states of Iran and Turkey. The capital of the republic was Yerevan and it contained thirty-seven districts (raions). Other major cities in the ArmSSR included Leninakan, Kirovakan, Hrazdan, Etchmiadzin, and Kapan. The republic was governed by Communist Party of Armenia, a branch of the main Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
Soviet Armenia was established on 2 December 1920, with the Sovietization of the short-lived First Republic of Armenia. Consequently, historians often refer to it as the Second Republic of Armenia.[3] It became part of the Transcaucasian SFSR, along with neighboring Georgia and Azerbaijan, which comprised one of the four founding republics of the USSR. When the TSFSR was dissolved in 1936, Armenia became a full republic of the Soviet Union.
As part of the Soviet Union, Armenia initially experienced stabilization under the administration of Alexander Miasnikian during Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP). During its seventy-one year history, the republic was transformed from a largely agricultural hinterland to an important industrial production center, while its population almost quadrupled from around 880,000 in 1926 to 3.3 million in 1989 due to natural growth and large-scale influx of Armenian genocide survivors and their descendants.
Soviet Armenia suffered during the Great Purge of Joseph Stalin, but contributed significantly to the Soviet victory in the Great Patriotic War of World War II. After the death of Stalin, Armenia experienced a new period of liberalization during the Khrushchev Thaw. Following the Brezhnev era, Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms of glasnost and perestroika led to the rise of the Karabakh movement. The republic declared "state sovereignty" on 23 August 1990, boycotted the March 1991 referendum on the New Union Treaty, and on 21 September 1991, held a successful independence referendum. It was recognized on 26 December 1991 with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, although the republic's 1978 Soviet constitution remained in effect with major amendments until 5 July 1995 when the new Armenian constitution was adopted via referendum.
Formal name
Following the Sovietization of Armenia, the republic became officially known as the Socialist Soviet Republic of Armenia. After the dissolution of the TSFSR in 1936, the name was changed to the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, which was used until 1991.[4]
In Armenian, the official name was initially "Socʼialistakan Xorhrdayin Hayastani Hanrapetutʼyun". From 1936, the official name became "Hayastani Socʼialistakan Xorhrdayin Hanrapetutʼyun". The form of "Hayastani" was replaced by "Haykakan", as well as words "Soviet" and "socialist" were swapped the position, which making the name was changed to "Haykakan Xorhrdayin Socʼialistakan Hanrapetutʼyun". In 1940, the direct borrowing translations of "Soviet" and "republic" replaced native Armenian words, adjusting the name to "Haykakan Sovetakan Socʼialistakan Respublika". In the 1960s, the native word for "republic" was restored.[citation needed].
History
Sovietization
Prior to Soviet rule, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF, Dashnaksutiun) had governed the First Republic of Armenia. The Socialist Soviet Republic of Armenia was founded in 1920. Diaspora Armenians were divided about this; supporters of the nationalist Dashnaksutiun did not support the Soviet state, while supporters of the Armenian General Benevolent Union (AGBU) were more positive about the newly founded Soviet state.[5]
From 1828, with the
A number of Armenians joined the advancing
New Economic Policy (NEP)
From 12 March 1922 to 5 December 1936, Armenia was a part of the
The Revolutionary Committee started a series of indiscriminate seizures and confiscations, without regard to class, and without taking into account the general economic and psychological state of the peasantry. Devoid of revolutionary planning, and executed with needless brutality, these confiscations were unorganized and promiscuous. Unattended by disciplinary machinery, without preliminary propaganda or enlightenment, and with utter disregard of the country's unusually distressing condition, the Revolutionary Committee issued its orders nationalizing food supply of the cities and peasantry. With amazing recklessness and unconcern, they seized and nationalized everything – military uniforms, artisan tools, rice mills, water mills, barbers' implements, beehives, linen, household furniture, and livestock.[10]
Such was the degree and scale of the requisitioning and terror imposed by the local Cheka that in February 1921 the Armenians, led by former leaders of the republic, rose up in revolt and briefly unseated the communists in Yerevan. The Red Army, which was campaigning in Georgia at the time, returned to suppress the revolt and drove its leaders out of Armenia.[11]
Convinced that these heavy-handed tactics were the source of the alienation of the native population to Soviet rule, in 1921, Lenin appointed Miasnikian, an experienced administrator, to carry out a more moderate policy and one better attuned to Armenian national sensibilities. With the introduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP), Armenians began to enjoy a period of relative stability. Life under Soviet rule proved to be a soothing balm in contrast to the turbulent years of the First Republic.[12] Alexander Tamanian began to realize his city plan for Yerevan and the population received medicine, food, as well as other provisions from Moscow.[13]
Prior to his debilitating illness, Lenin encouraged the policy of (The New Path), was established in Armenia in 1930.
An institute for culture and history was created in 1921 in
Stalinism and the Great Purge
The situation in Armenia and the USSR significantly changed after the
The arrest and death of Sahak Ter-Gabrielyan in August 1937 was a turning point in the repressions. When being interrogated by Mughdusi, Ter-Gabrielyan "either jumped or was thrown from" the window of the NKVD building in Yerevan.[18] Stalin was angered that Mughdusi and Amatuni neglected to inform him about the incident.[17] In response, in September 1937, he sent Georgy Malenkov, Mikhail Litvin, and later Anastas Mikoyan to oversee a purge of the Communist Party of Armenia. During his trip to Armenia, Mikoyan tried, but failed, to save one individual (Daniel "Danush" Shahverdyan) from being executed.[17] More than a thousand people were arrested and seven of nine members of the Armenian Politburo were sacked from office.[19] The trip also resulted in the appointment of a new Armenian Party leadership, headed by Grigory Arutinov, who was approved by Beria.[20]
The Armenian Apostolic Church was not spared from the repressions. Soviet attacks against the Church under Stalin were known since 1929, but momentarily eased to improve the Soviet Union's relations with the Armenian diaspora. In 1932, Khoren I became Catholicos of All Armenians and assumed the leadership of the church. However, in the late 1930s, the Armenian NKVD, led by Mughdusi and his successor, Viktor Khvorostyan, renewed the attacks against the Church.[21] These attacks culminated in the 1938 murder of Khoren and the closing of the Catholicate of Ejmiatsin, an act for which Beria is usually held responsible.[22] However, the Church survived and was later revived when Stalin eased restrictions on religion at the end of World War II.[21] In addition to the repression of the Church, tens of thousands of Armenians were executed or deported, as with various other ethnic minorities living in the Soviet Union under Stalin. In 1936, Beria and Stalin worked to deport Armenians to Siberia in an attempt to bring Armenia's population under 700,000 in order to justify an annexation into Georgia[23] Thousands of Armenians were forcibly exiled to the Altai Krai in 1949.[24][25] Many were repatriated Armenians who arrived from the Armenian diaspora.[5]
Great Patriotic War
Armenia was spared the devastation and destruction that wrought most of the western Soviet Union during the
In an effort to shore up popular support for the war effort, the Soviet government allowed for certain expressions of nationalism with the publication of Armenian novels such as
At the end of the war, after Germany's capitulation, the Soviet government attempted to annul the Treaty of Kars, allowing it to regain the provinces of Kars, Ardahan, Artvin, and Surmalu. On 7 June 1945, Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov informed the Turkish ambassador in Moscow that the disputed provinces should be returned to Soviet Union in the name of both the Armenian and Georgian Soviet Republics.[32] Turkey itself was in no condition to fight a war with the Soviet Union, which had emerged as a superpower after the Second World War.[32] The Soviet territorial claims were supported by the Armenian Catholicos and by all shades of the Armenian diaspora, including the anti-Soviet Dashnaksutiun.[32] However, with the onset of the Cold War, especially the Truman Doctrine in 1947, Turkey strengthened its ties with the West. The Soviet Union relinquished its claims over the lost territories, and Ankara joined the anti-Soviet NATO military alliance in 1952.[33]
Armenian immigration
With the republic suffering heavy losses after the war, Stalin allowed an
Lured by numerous incentives such as food coupons, better housing and other benefits, they were received coldly by the Armenians living in the Republic upon their arrival. The repatriates spoke the
Khrushchev Thaw
Following the power struggle after Stalin's death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev emerged as the country's new leader.[37] In his "secret" speech "On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences" that he delivered before the 20th Congress of the Soviet Communist Party in 1956, Khrushchev sharply denounced Stalin and his crimes. During the subsequent Khrushchev Thaw, the Soviet leadership largely loosened political restrictions and put more resources into housing and consumer goods.
Almost immediately, Armenia underwent a cultural and economic rebirth.
Mikoyan was not the only Armenian figure who rose to prominence during this era. Other famed Soviet Armenians included composers Aram Khachaturian, Arno Babajanian, Konstantin Orbelyan, and Tigran Mansurian; scientists Viktor Hambardzumyan and Artem Alikhanyan; actors Armen Dzhigarkhanyan and Frunzik Mkrtchyan; filmmakers Frunze Dovlatyan, Henrik Malyan, Sergei Parajanov, and Artavazd Peleshyan; artists Minas Avetisyan, Yervand Kochar, Hakob Kojoyan, and Tereza Mirzoyan; singers Georgi Minasyan, Raisa Mkrtchyan, and Ruben Matevosyan; and writers Silva Kaputikyan, Sero Khanzadyan, Hrant Matevosyan, Paruyr Sevak, and Hovhannes Shiraz, among many others.
Brezhnev era
After
The Brezhnev era also saw the rise of the shadow economy and corruption. Materials allocated for the building of new homes, such as cement and concrete, were diverted for other uses. Bribery and a lack of oversight saw the construction of shoddily built and weakly supported apartment buildings. The impact of such developments was to be demonstrated several years later in the catastrophic earthquake that hit Spitak. When the earthquake hit on the morning of 7 December 1988, the houses and apartments least able to resist collapse were those built during the Brezhnev years. Ironically, the older the dwellings, the better they withstood the quake.[42] Armenian First Secretary Karen Demirchyan assumed office with a mandate to combat these abuses.
Glasnost and perestroika
Mikhail Gorbachev's introduction of the reforms of glasnost and perestroika in the 1980s fueled Armenian visions of a better life under Soviet rule. Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh, which was promised to Armenia by the Bolsheviks but transferred to Soviet Azerbaijan, began a movement to unite the area with Armenia. The majority Armenian population expressed concern about the forced "Azerification" of the region.[43] On February 20, 1988, the Supreme Soviet of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast voted to unify with Armenia.[44]
Demonstrations took place in Yerevan in support of the Karabakh Armenians, and grew into what became known as the Karabakh movement. By the beginning of 1988, nearly one million Armenians from several regions of the republic engaged in these demonstrations, centered on Yerevan's Theater Square (currently Freedom Square).[45] However, in neighboring Azerbaijan, violence against Armenians erupted in the city of Sumgait.[46] Ethnic rioting soon broke out between Armenians and Azeris, preventing any peaceful resolution from taking place. Armenians became increasingly disillusioned with the Kremlin's response toward the issue. Gorbachev, who had until then been viewed favorably in Armenia, saw his standing among Armenians deteriorate significantly.[47]
Tension between the central government in Moscow and the local government in Yerevan heightened in the final years of the Soviet Union. The reasons largely stemmed from Moscow's perceived indecision on Karabakh, ongoing difficulties with earthquake relief, and the shortcomings of the Soviet economy.
The republic's independence became official with the
Politics
Government
The structure of government in the Armenian SSR was identical to that of the other Soviet republics. The First Secretary was the administrative head of the republic, and the head of government was the Chairman of the Council of Ministers. The republic's legislative body was the Armenian Supreme Soviet, which included the highest judicial branch of the republic, the supreme court. Members of the Supreme Soviet served for a term of five years, whereas regional deputies served for two and a half years. All officials holding office were mandated to be members of the Communist Party and sessions were convened in the Supreme Soviet building in Yerevan.
The administrative divisions of the Armenian SSR from 1930 consisted of up 37 raions and 22 city districts. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, these were abolished in 1995 and replaced by larger marzer ("provinces").
Depending on the historical period, Soviet authorities would variously tolerate, co-opt, undermine, or sometimes even attempt to eliminate certain currents within Armenian society, such as nationalism and religion, to strengthen the cohesiveness of the Union. In the eyes of early Soviet policymakers, Armenians, along with
Like all the other republics of the Soviet Union, Armenia had its own flag and coat of arms. According to Nikita Khrushchev, the latter became a source of dispute between the Soviet Union and Turkey in the 1950s, when Ankara objected to the inclusion of Mount Ararat, which holds a deep symbolic importance for Armenians but is located on Turkish territory, in the coat of arms. Turkey felt that the presence of such an image implied Soviet designs on Turkish territory. Khrushchev retorted by asking, "Why do you have a moon depicted on your flag? After all, the moon doesn't belong to Turkey, not even half the moon. Do you want to take over the whole universe?"[55] Turkey dropped the issue after this.[56]
Participation in international organizations
The Armenian SSR, as a Soviet republic, was internationally recognized by the United Nations as part of the Soviet Union but it had Norair Sisakian as President of the 21st session of the UNESCO General Conference in 1964. The Soviet Union was also a member of Comecon, Warsaw Pact and the International Olympic Committee.
Military forces
The military forces of the Armenian SSR were provided by the Soviet Army's 7th Guards Combined Arms Army of the Transcaucasian Military District. It was organized into the following:
- HQ of the 7th Guards Combined Arms Army - Yerevan[57]
- 127th Motor Rifle Division, Leninakan (today the Russian 102nd Military Base)
- 164th Motor Rifle Division, Yerevan
- 7th Fortified Area, Leninakan
- 9th Fortified Area, Ejmiatsin
Economy
Under the Soviet system, the centralized economy of the republic banned private ownership of income-producing property. Beginning in the late 1920s, privately owned farms in Armenia were collectivized and placed under the directive of the state, although this was often met with active resistance by the peasantry. During the same time (1929–1936), the government also began the process of industrialization in Armenia.
Republic's economic foundation is the socialist system of economy and the socialist ownership of the means of production, which has two forms: state property and cooperative and collective-farm property. In addition to the socialist system of economy, which is the predominant form of economy in the Republic, the law permits small private undertakings of individual peasants and handicraftsmen based on their own labor and precluding exploitation of the labor of others. The economic life of the Republic is determined and guided by the state economic plan.[59]
By 1935, the gross product of agriculture was 132% of that of 1928 and the gross product of industry was 650% to that of 1928. The economic revolution of the 1930s, however, came at a great cost: it broke up the traditional peasant family and village institution and forced many living in the rural countryside to settle in urban areas. Private enterprise came to a virtual end as it was effectively brought under government control.[60]
Culture
Literature
Lazare Indjeyan's Les Années volées and
Notes
- ^ Armenian SSR; Armenian: Հայկական Սովետական Սոցիալիստական Հանրապետություն, romanized: Haykakan Sovetakan Soc'ialistakan Hanrapetut'yun; Russian: Армянская Советская Социалистическая Республика, romanized: Armyanskaya Sovetskaya Sotsialisticheskaya Respublika)
- ^ Armenian: Սովետական Հայաստան, romanized: Sovetakan Hayastan; Russian: Советская Армения, romanized: Sovetskaya Armeniya
- ^ Standard pronunciation is in Eastern Armenian ([hɑjɑsˈtɑn]). Western Armenian: [hɑjɑsˈdɑn].
- ^ /ɑːrˈmiːniə/ ⓘ;[2] Armenian: Հայաստան, romanized: Hayastan, IPA: [hɑjɑsˈtɑn];[c] Russian: Армения, tr. Armeniya, IPA: [ɐrˈmʲenʲɪjə]
References
- ^ On 4 August 1990, article 6 on the monopoly of the Communist Party of Armenia on power was excluded from the Constitution of the Armenian SSR
- ^ "Armenia." Dictionary.com Unabridged. 2015.
- ISBN 1-56859-141-1.
- ^ Конституция СССР (1936) Глава II. Государственное устройство (ст. 13).. Archived from the original on 2020-03-20. Retrieved 2020-03-21.
- ^ S2CID 159467141.
- ^ The full history of the Armenian republic is covered by Richard G. Hovannisian, Republic of Armenia. 4 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971-1996.
- ISBN 978-0300153088.
- S2CID 154783461. Retrieved 30 December 2020.
- ^ Suny, Ronald Grigor. Looking Toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993, p. 139.
- ^ Quoted in Ronald Grigor Suny. "Soviet Armenia", in The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume II: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997, p. 350.
- ^ Hovannisian, Richard G. Republic of Armenia, vol. 4: Between Crescent and Sickle, Partition and Sovietization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996, pp. 405-07.
- ^ Suny, "Soviet Armenia", pp. 355-57.
- ^ Matossian, Mary Kilbourne (1962). The Impact of Soviet Policies in Armenia. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 80.
- ISBN 0-8014-8677-7.
- ^ a b Suny, "Soviet Armenia", pp. 356-57.
- ^ a b Barseghyan, Artak R. (July 9, 2021). "Кто убил Агаси Ханджяна?" [Who killed Aghasi Khanjian?]. armradio.am (in Russian). Public Radio of Armenia. Archived from the original on July 9, 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
- ^ a b c d e Shakarian, Pietro A. (November 12, 2021). "Yerevan 1954: Anastas Mikoyan and Nationality Reform in the Thaw, 1954–1964". Peripheral Histories. Retrieved December 12, 2021.
- ^ Melkonian, Eduard (1 December 2010). "Repressions in 1930s Soviet Armenia" (PDF). Caucasus Analytical Digest. p. 8. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
- ISBN 0-393-30869-3.
- ^ Mirzoyan, Gamlet (March 2009). "Советские правители Армении: ЭСКИЗ седьмой - Арутюнян (Арутинов) Г.А." [Soviet Leaders of Armenia: Excerpt Seven - Arutyunyan (Arutinov) G. A.]. noev-kovcheg.ru (in Russian). Archived from the original on 2014-11-16. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
- ^ a b Matossian. Impact of Soviet Policies, p. 80.
- ^ Hayrapetyan, Kanakara (2018). "Ամենայն Հայոց Կաթողիկոս Խորէն Ա. Մուրադբեկյանի մահվան առեղծվածի վերլուծությունը պատմագիտության մեջ [Historiographical analysis of the mysterious death of Khoren I Muradbekyan, Catholicos of All Armenians]". Ejmiatsin (in Armenian). 75 (7): 145.
- ^ Bauer-Manndorff, Elisabeth (1981). Armenia: Past and Present. New York: Armenian Prelacy, p. 178.
- ^ Yalanuzyan, Mikael (31 August 2021). "Exile to Siberia". EVN Report. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
- ISBN 9789639241688.
- ISBN 978-0-7099-0210-2.
- ^ (in Armenian) Harutyunyan, Kliment. Hay zhoghovrdi masnaktsutyune Erkrord Hamashkharhayin Paterazmin (1939-1945 թթ.) [The Participation of the Armenian People in the Second World War, (1939-1945)] (Yerevan: Hrazdan, 2001).
- ^ a b (in Armenian) Khudaverdian, Konstantin. s.v. "Sovetakan Miutyan Hayrenakan Mets Paterazm, 1941-1945" [The Soviet Union's Great Patriotic War, 1941-1945]. Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia, vol. 10, pp. 542-547.
- ISBN 978-0-231-13926-7.
- ^ Matossian. Impact of Soviet Policies, pp. 194-195.
- ^ Corley, Felix. "The Armenian Church under the Soviet Regime, Part 1: The Leadership of Kevork", Religion, State and Society 24 (1996): pp. 9-53.
- ^ a b c Suny, Looking Toward Ararat, pp. 165–169.
- ^ Krikorian, Robert O. "Kars-Ardahan and Soviet Armenian Irredentism, 1945-1946", in Armenian Kars and Ani, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2011, pp. 393-410.
- ^ Dekmejian, R. Hrair, "The Armenian Diaspora", in The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, pp. 416-417.
- ^ Yousefian, Sevan, "The Postwar Repatriation Movement of Armenians to Soviet Armenia, 1945-1948", Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 2011.
- ^ Maike Lehmann, "A Different Kind of Brothers: Exclusion and Partial Integration after Repatriation to a Soviet 'Homeland'", Ab Imperio 3 (2012): pp. 171-211.
- ^ On the transition from Stalin to Khrushchev as it affected Armenia, consult (in Armenian) Amatuni Virabyan, Hayastane Stalinits minchev Khrushchev: Hasarakakan-kaghakakan kyanke 1945-1957 tt. [Armenia from Stalin to Khrushchev: Social-political life, 1945-57] (Yerevan: Gitutyun Publishing, 2001).
- ^ Panossian. The Armenians, p. 349.
- ^ Suny, Ronald Grigor (1983). Armenia in the Twentieth Century. Chico, CA: Scholars Press, pp. 72-73.
- ^ Maike Lehmann, "Apricot Socialism: The National Past, the Soviet Project, and the Imagining of Community in Late Soviet Armenia", Slavic Review 1 (Spring 2015): pp. 9-31.
- ^ Panossian. The Armenians, p. 349.
- ^ Verluise, Pierre and Levon Chorbajian (1995). Armenia in Crisis: the 1988 Earthquake. Detroit: Wayne State University Press.
- ISBN 978-0-231-70064-1.
- ISBN 978-0-8014-8736-1.
- ISBN 0-8143-2605-6.
- ISBN 978-1879944558.
- ^ See Ohannes Geukjian, Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in the South Caucasus: Nagorno-Karabakh and the Legacy of Soviet Nationalities Policy (London: Routledge, 2016).
- ^ Krikorian, Robert O. and Joseph R. Masih. Armenia: At the Crossroads. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1999, pp. 19-20.
- ^ Декларация о независимости Армении
- ^ "Legislation: National Assemly of RA". www.parliament.am.
- ^ "Baltic states, Armenia, Georgia, and Moldova boycott USSR referendum". Archived from the original on November 16, 2005. Retrieved 2007-02-06.
- ^ Маркедонов Сергей Самоопределение по ленинским принципам
- ^ Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire, p. 23.
- ^ Panossian. The Armenians, pp. 288-89.
- ISBN 0-271-02935-8.
- ^ Khrushchev. Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev, p. 468.
- ^ Holm, Michael. "7th Guards Combined Arms Army". www.ww2.dk. Retrieved 2016-02-14.
- ^ Holm, Michael. "91st Motorised Rifle Division". www.ww2.dk. Retrieved 2016-02-14.
- ^ USSR Armenia. Moscow: Press Agency Publishing House MOSCOW. p. 1967.
- ^ Matossian. Impact of Soviet Policies, pp. 99-116.
Further reading
- (in Armenian) Aghayan, Tsatur., et al. (eds.), Հայ Ժողովրդի Պատմություն [History of the Armenian People], vols. 7 and 8. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1967, 1970.
- (in Armenian) Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1974–1987, 12 volumes.
- Aslanyan, A. A. et al. Soviet Armenia. Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1971.
- (in Armenian) Geghamyan, Gurgen M. Սոցիալ-տնտեսական փոփոխությունները Հայաստանում ՆԵՊ-ի տարիներին (1921-1936) [Socio-Economic Changes in the Armenia during the NEP Years, (1921-1936)]. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1978.
- Matossian, Mary Kilbourne. The Impact of Soviet Policies in Armenia. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1962.
- Miller, Donald E. and Lorna Touryan Miller, Armenia: Portraits of Survival and Hope. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.
- Shaginian [Shahinyan], Marietta S. Journey through Soviet Armenia. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954.
- Suny, Ronald Grigor. "Soviet Armenia", in The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume II: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997.
- (in Armenian) Virabyan, Amatuni. Հայաստանը Ստալինից մինչև Խրուշչով: Հասարակական-քաղաքական կյանքը 1945-1957 թթ. [Armenia from Stalin to Khrushchev: Social-political life, 1945-1957] Yerevan: Gitutyun Publishing, 2001.
- Walker, Christopher J. Armenia: The Survival of a Nation. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1990.
- Yeghenian, Aghavnie Y. The Red Flag at Ararat. New York: The Womans Press, 1932. Republished by the Gomidas Institute in London, 2013.