Thracians

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Bronze head of Seuthes III from his tomb
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The Thracians (

modern-day Bulgaria, Romania and northern Greece, but also in north-western Anatolia (Asia Minor) in Turkey
.

The exact origin of the Thracians is uncertain, but it is believed that Thracians descended from a purported mixture of Proto-Indo-Europeans and Early European Farmers, arriving from the rest of Asia and Africa through Asia Minor (Anatolia).[3]

Around the 5th millennium BC, the inhabitants of the eastern region of the Balkans became organized in different groups of indigenous people that were later named by the ancient Greeks under the single ethnonym of “Thracians”.[4][5][6][7]

The Thracian culture emerged during the early Bronze Age, which began about 3500 BC.[4][8][9][10] From it also developed the Getae, the Dacians and other regional groups of tribes. Historical and archaeological records indicate that the Thracian culture flourished in the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC.[4][11][12] Writing in the 6th century BC, Xenophanes described Thracians as "blue-eyed and red-haired".[13]

Persian Wars. The Odrysian kingdom lost independence to Macedon in the late 4th century BC, and regained independence following Alexander the Great
's death.

The Thracians faced conquest by the Romans in the mid 2nd century BC under whom they faced internal strife. They composed major parts of rebellions against the Romans along with the Macedonians until the Third Macedonian War. The last reported use of a Thracian language was by monks in the 6th century AD.

Thracian armor from the Odrysian kingdom 4th entury BC

Thracians were described as "

warlike" and "barbarians" by the Greeks and Romans and were favored as mercenaries. Archaeology has been used since the mid-twentieth century in southern Bulgaria to identify more about them. Both Romans and Greeks called them barbarians since they were neither Romans nor Greeks, and due to the perceived primitiveness of their culture. Some Roman authors noted that even after the introduction of Latin they still kept their "barbarous" ways.[14] While the Thracians were perceived as unsophisticated by Romans and Greeks, their culture was reportedly noted for its poetry and music.[15]

Thracians spoke the extinct Thracian language and shared a common culture.[1] The Thracians culturally interacted with the peoples surrounding them – Greeks, Persians, Scythians and Celts – although such interactions mostly affected the circles of the aristocratic elite of Thracian society.[16] Among their customs was tattooing, common among both males and females.[17] They followed a polytheistic religion. The study of the Thracians is known as Thracology.

Etymology

The first historical record of the Thracians is found in the

exonyms as applied by the Greeks.[20]

Mythological foundation

war and courage. He is one of the Twelve Olympians, and the son of Zeus and Hera
.

In Greek mythology, Thrax (by his name simply the quintessential Thracian) was regarded as one of the reputed sons of the god Ares.[21] In the Alcestis, Euripides mentions that one of the names of Ares himself was "Thrax" since he was regarded as the patron of Thrace (his golden or gilded shield was kept in his temple at Bistonia in Thrace).[22]

Origins

See also:
Prehistoric Balkans § Iron Age
Illustration of 5th–4th century BC Thracian peltast

The origins of the Thracians remain obscure, in the absence of written historical records before they made contact with the

Early Bronze Age[24] when the latter, around 1500 BC, mixed with indigenous peoples.[25] According to one theory, their ancestors migrated in three waves from the northeast: the first in the Late Neolithic, forcing out the Pelasgians and Achaeans, the second in the Early Bronze Age, and the third around 1200 BC. They reached the Aegean islands, ending the Mycenaean civilization. They did not speak the same language.[23] The lack of written archeological records left by thracians suggests that the diverse topography did not make it possible for a single language to form.[23]

Mediterranean.[citation needed] Although these historians characterized the Thracians as primitive partly because they lived in simple, open villages, the Thracians in fact had a fairly advanced culture that was especially noted for its poetry and music. Their soldiers were valued as mercenaries, particularly by the Macedonians and Romans.[citation needed
]

Identity and distribution

Main articles: Classification of Thracian and List of ancient Daco-Thracian peoples and tribes
Thracian Helm, Bronze and Silver

Divided into separate tribes, the Thracians did not manage to form a lasting political organization until the

Odrysian state was founded in the 5th century BC. A strong Dacian state appeared in the 1st century BC, during the reign of King Burebista. The mountainous regions were home to various peoples, regarded as warlike and ferocious Thracian tribes, while the plains peoples were apparently regarded as more peaceable.[citation needed] The most prominent tribe, the Moesians only achieved importance under Roman rule.[26]

Thracians inhabited parts of the ancient provinces of

Beotia, Attica, Dacia, Scythia Minor, Sarmatia, Bithynia, Mysia, Pannonia, and other regions of the Balkans and Anatolia. This area extended over most of the Balkans region, and the Getae north of the Danube as far as beyond the Bug and including Pannonia in the west.[27]

There were about 200 Thracian tribes.[28]

Tribes in Thrace and Macedonia

Thucydides[29] mentions about a period in the past (from his point), when Thracians have inhabited the region of Phocis, known also as the location of Delphi; he defines it by the lifetime of Tereus – mythological Thracian king and son of god Ares.

Tribes in Dacia during the reign of Burebista (82/61 BC – 45/44 BC)

According to Ethnica, a geographical dictionary by Stephanus of Byzantium, Thrace—the land of the Thracians—was formerly known as Persia and Aria,[30][31] presumably due to the affiliation of the Thracians with the god Ares[29] and the Indo-Iranic Aryan people.[32]

Thracians were regarded by ancient

Greeks and Romans as warlike, ferocious, bloodthirsty, and barbarian.[33][34][14] Plato in his Republic groups them with the Scythians,[35] calling them extravagant and high spirited; and his Laws portrays them as a warlike nation, grouping them with Celts, Persians, Scythians, Iberians and Carthaginians.[36] Polybius wrote of Cotys's sober and gentle character being unlike that of most Thracians.[37] Tacitus in his Annals writes of them being wild, savage and impatient, disobedient even to their own kings.[38] The Thracians have been said to have "tattooed their bodies, obtained their wives by purchase, and often sold their children."[14] Victor Duruy further notes that they "considered husbandry unworthy of a warrior, and knew no source of gain but war and theft,"[14] and that they practiced human sacrifice,[14] which has been confirmed by archaeological evidence.[39]

Athenian club for lawless youths was named after the Triballi.[43]

According to ancient Roman sources, the

Kallinikos skirmish at 171 BC.[45]

Herodotus writes that "they sell their children and let their maidens commerce with whatever men they please".[46]

The accuracy and impartiality of these descriptions have been called into question in modern times, given the seeming embellishments in Herodotus's histories, for one.[47][failed verification] Strabo treated the Thracians as barbarians, and held that they spoke the same language as the Getae.[48] Archaeologists have attempted to piece together a fuller understanding of Thracian culture through study of their artifacts.[49]

History

See also: List of ancient cities in Thrace and Dacia

Homeric period

The earliest known mention of Thracians is in the second song of Homer’s

Thracian Chersonesus is said to have participated in the Trojan War
, which is believed to have taken place around 12th century BC. This population is referred to with the following name:

"...And Hippothous led the tribes of the Pelasgi, that rage with the spear, even them that dwelt in deep-soiled Larisa; these were led by Hippothous and Pylaeus, scion of Ares, sons twain of Pelasgian Lethus, son of Teutamus. But the Thracians Acamas led and Peirous, the warrior, even all them that the strong stream of the Hellespont encloseth.”[50][51][52]

Archaic period

The first

Hellenes").[54]

At some point in the 7th century BC, a portion of the Thracian

Alyattes,[59][60] Madyes expelled the Treres from Asia Minor and defeated the Cimmerians so that they no longer constituted a threat again, following which the Scythians extended their domination to Central Anatolia[61] until they were themselves expelled by the Medes from Western Asia in the 600s BC.[56]

Achaemenid Thrace

Main article: Skudra
Relief of Thracian Warriors from 6th-5th century BC, Reign of Darius I

In the 6th century BC the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered Thrace, starting in 513 BC, when the Achaemenid king Darius I amassed an army and marched from Achaemenid-ruled Anatolia into Thrace, and from there he crossed the Arteskos river and then proceeded through the valley-route of the Hebros river. This was an act of conquest by Darius I, who sought to create a new satrapy in the Balkans, and had during his march sent emissaries to the Thracians found on the path of his army as well as to the many other Thracian tribes over a wide area. All these peoples of Thrace, including the Odrysae, submitted to the Achaemenid king until his army reached the territory of Thracian tribe of the Getae who lived just south of the Danube river and who in vain attempted to resist the Achaemenid conquest. After the resistance of the Getae was defeated and they were forced to provide the Achaemenid army with soldiers, all the Thracian tribes between the Aegean Sea and the Danube river had been subjected by the Achaemenid Empire. Once Darius had reached the Danube, he crossed the river and campaigned against the Scythians, after which he returned to Anatolia through Thrace and left a large army in Europe under the command of his general Megabazus.[62]

Following Darius I's orders to create a new satrapy for the Achaemenid Empire in the Balkans, Megabazus forced the Greek cities who had refused to submit to the Achaemenid Empire, starting with

Achaemenid army, as shown in the Imperial tomb reliefs of Naqsh-e Rostam, and participated in the Second Persian invasion of Greece on the Achaemenid side.[66]

When Achaemenid control over its European possessions collapsed once the Ionian Revolt started, the Thracians did not help the Greek rebels, and they instead saw Achaemenid rule as more favourable because the latter had treated the Thracians with favour and even given them more land, and also because they realised that Achaemenid rule was a bulwark against Greek expansion and Scythian attacks. During the revolt, Aristagoras of Miletus captured Myrcinus from the Edones and died trying to attack another Thracian city.[62]

The Province of Skudra (Thrace and Macedonia) in the Achaemenid Empire, 480 BC

Once the Ionian Revolt had been fully quelled, the Achaemenid general

Lake Doiran and modern-day Valandovo, but he was able to defeat and submit them as well. Herodotus's list of tribes who provided the Achaemenid army with soldiers included Thracians from both the coast and from the central Thracian plain, attesting that Mardonius's campaign had reconquered all the Thracian areas which were under Achaemenid rule before the Ionian Revolt.[62]

When the Greeks defeated a second invasion attempt by the Persian Empire in 479 BC, they started attacking the satrapy of Skudra, which was resisted by both the Thracians and the Persian forces. The Thracians kept on sending supplies to the governor of Eion when the Greeks besieged it. When the city fell to the Greeks in 475 BC, Cimon gave its land to Athens for colonisation. Although Athens was now in control of the Aegean Sea and the Hellespont following the defeat of the Persian invasion, the Persians were still able to control the southern coast of Thrace from a base in central Thrace and with the support of the Thracians. Thanks to the Thracians co-operating with the Persians by sending supplies and military reinforcements down the Hebrus river route, Achaemenid authority in central Thrace lasted until around 465 BC, and the governor Mascames managed to resist many Greek attacks in Doriscus until then.[62]

Around this time, Teres I, the king of the Odrysae tribe, in whose territory the Hebrus flowed, was starting to organise the rise of his kingdom into a powerful state. With the end of Achaemenid power in the Balkans, the Thracian Odrysian kingdom, the Kingdom of Macedonia, and the Athenian thalassocracy filled the ensuing power vacuum and formed their own spheres of influence in the area.[62]

Odrysian Kingdom

Main article: Odrysian kingdom
The Odrysian kingdom in its maximum extent under Sitalces I (431–424 BC)[53]

The Odrysian Kingdom was a state union of over 40 Thracian tribes

European Turkey.[citation needed
]

By the 5th century BC, the Thracian population was large enough that

Dacian kingdom of Burebista. The peltast, a type of soldier of this period, probably originated in Thrace.[citation needed
]

During this period, a subculture of

ascetics called the "ctistae" lived in Thrace, where they served as philosophers, priests and prophets.[citation needed
]

Macedonian Thrace

During this period, contacts between the Thracians and Classical Greece intensified.[citation needed]

After the Persians withdrew from Europe and before the expansion of the Kingdom of Macedon, Thrace was divided into three regions (east, central, and west). A notable ruler of the East Thracians was Cersobleptes, who attempted to expand his authority over many of the Thracian tribes. He was eventually defeated by the Macedonians.[citation needed]

The Thracians were typically not city-builders[70][71] and their only polis was Seuthopolis.[72][73]

The conquest of the southern part of Thrace by Philip II of Macedon in the 4th century BC made the Odrysian kingdom extinct for several years. After the kingdom was reestablished, it was a vassal state of Macedon for several decades under generals such as Lysimachus of the Diadochi.[citation needed]

Mosaic depicting the Battle of Issus, 333 BC

In 336 BC, Alexander the Great began recruiting thracian cavalry and javelin men in his army, who accompnied him on his continuous conquest to expand the borders of the Macedonian Empire.[74] The strength of the thracian cavalry quickly grew from 150 men, to 1000 men by the time Alexander advanced into Egypt, and numbered 1600 when he reached the persian city of Susa. The thracian infantry was under the command of the Odrysian prince Sitalces II who lead them in the siege of Telmissus and in the battles of Issus and Gaugamela.[74]

In 279 BC, Celtic Gauls advanced into Macedonia, southern Greece and Thrace. They were soon forced out of Macedonia and southern Greece, but they remained in Thrace until the end of the 3rd century BC. From Thrace, three Celtic tribes advanced into Anatolia and established the kingdom of Galatia.[citation needed]

In western parts of Moesia, Celts (Scordisci) and Thracians lived alongside each other, as evident from the archaeological findings of pits and treasures, spanning from the 3rd century BC to the 1st century BC.[75]

Roman Thrace

Main articles:
Scythia Minor (Roman province), and Thraco-Roman
Southeastern Europe in the 2nd century BC

During the Macedonian Wars, conflict between Rome and Thrace was unavoidable. The rulers of Macedonia were weak, and Thracian tribal authority resurged. But after the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC, Roman authority over Macedonia seemed inevitable, and the governance of Thrace passed to Rome.[citation needed]

Initially, Thracians and Macedonians revolted against Roman rule. For example, the revolt of Andriscus, in 149 BC, drew the bulk of its support from Thrace. Incursions by local tribes into Macedonia continued for many years, though a few tribes, such as the Deneletae and the Bessi, willingly allied with Rome.[citation needed]

After the Third Macedonian War, Thrace acknowledged Roman authority. The client state of Thracia comprised several tribes.[citation needed]

The province of Thracia within the Roman Empire, c. 116 AD

The next century and a half saw the slow development of Thracia into a permanent Roman client state. The

Sapaei tribe came to the forefront initially under the rule of Rhascuporis. He was known to have granted assistance to both Pompey and Caesar, and later supported the Republican armies against Mark Antony and Octavian in the final days of the Republic.[citation needed
]

The heirs of Rhascuporis became as deeply enmeshed in political scandal and murder as were their Roman masters. A series of royal assassinations altered the ruling landscape for several years in the early Roman imperial period. Various factions took control with the support of the Roman Emperor. The turmoil would eventually end with one final assassination.[citation needed]

After

Balkan Sprachbund does not support Hellenization.[citation needed
]

Roman authority in Thracia rested mainly with the legions stationed in

legionary fortresses to supplement the defense.[citation needed
]

Aftermath

Location of the thracian tribe Bessoi (Bessi), Western Rhodope Mountains

The ancient languages of these people and their cultural influence were highly reduced due to the repeated invasions of the Balkans by

slavicisation. However, the Thracians as a group only disappeared in the Early Middle Ages.[76] Towards the end of the 4th century, Nicetas the Bishop of Remesiana brought the gospel to "those mountain wolves", the Bessi.[77]
Reportedly his mission was successful, and the worship of Dionysus and other Thracian gods was eventually replaced by Christianity.

Mount Moses (Sinai)
, Egypt where Bessian was spoken by monks

In 570, Antoninus Placentius said that in the valleys of

Theodosius the Cenobiarch founded on the shore of the Dead Sea a monastery with four churches, in each being spoken a different language, among which Bessian was found. The place where the monasteries were founded was called "Cutila", which may be a Thracian name.[78]

Thracian Rider from 3th century BC

The further fate of the Thracians is a matter of dispute. German historian Gottfried Schramm speculated that the

western Bulgaria to Albania.[79] Also from a linguistic point of view it emerges that the Thracian-Bessian hypothesis of the origin of Albanian should be rejected, since only very little comparative linguistic material is available (the Thracian is attested only marginally, while the Bessian is completely unknown), but at the same time the individual phonetic history of Albanian and Thracian clearly indicates a very different sound development that cannot be considered as the result of one language. Furthermore, the Christian vocabulary of Albanian is mainly Latin, which speaks against the construct of a "Thracian-Bessian church language".[80] Most probably the Thracians were assimilated into the Roman and later in the Byzantine society and became part of the ancestral groups of the modern Southeastern Europeans.[81]

Oddly the last mention of Thracians, in the 6th century, coincides with the first mention of Slavs, when the Slavic tribes inhabited large territories of Central and Eastern Europe.[82] After the 6th century Thracians that weren't already assimilated in the Byzantine Empire, were incorporated in the slavic speaking Bulgarian Empire.[83]

Madara Rider, a Bulgarian relief from 7th century AD, resembling earlier Thracian Horseman reliefs

Bulgarian Thrace

Main articles: First Bulgarian Empire and Second Bulgarian Empire

Slavic tribes had mingled with the Thracian population, prior to the formation of the Bulgarian state.[83] Under the leadership of Asparuh, in 680 AD the Thracians, Bulgars and Slavs readily united to establish the First Bulgarian Empire.[84][85] These three ethnic groups mingled to produce the Bulgarian people.[86] The Byzantine Empire, retained control over Thrace until the 7th century when the northern half of the entire region was claimed by the First Bulgarian Empire and the remainder was reorganized in the Thracian theme.

Legacy

Main articles: Genetic studies on Bulgarians and Northern Thrace

A recent Bulgarian study on the heritage of Thracian mounds in Bulgaria claims historical, cultural and ethnic links between Thracians and

Balkan populations predating Slavs and Bulgars. [88][89][90][91]

Greek Thrace

Main article: Western Thrace

Turkish Thrace

Main article: East Thrace

Culture

The Ring of Ezerovo, 5th century BC

Language

Main article: Thracian language

The records of Thracian writing are very scarce. There are only four inscriptions that have been discovered. One of them is a gold ring unearthed in the village of Ezerovo, Bulgaria. The thracian inscription is written using the Greek script and conists of 8 lines. Attempts to decipher the inscription have proven inconclusive.[92]

Religion

Main article: Thracian religion
See also:
Perkon was part of the Thracian pantheon, although cults of Orpheus and Zalmoxis likely overshadowed his.[citation needed
]

The Thracians are considered the first to worship the god of wine called Dionysus in Greek or Zagreus in Thracian.[97] Later this cult reached Ancient Greece.[98][99] Some consider Thrace as the motherland of wine culture.[100] The works of Homer, Herodotus and other historians of Ancient Greece also refer to the ancient Thracians' love for winemaking and consumption, also related to religion[101] as early as 6000 years ago.[102]

Marriage

The male Thracians were polygamous. Menander puts it: "All Thracians, especially us and the Getae, are not much abstaining, because no one takes less than ten, eleven, twelve wives, some even more. If one dies and has only four or five wives he is called ill-fated, unhappy and unmarried."[103] According to Herodotus virginity among women was not valued, and unmarried Thracian women could have sex with any man they wished to.[103] There were men perceived as holy Thracians, who lived without women and were called "ktisti".[103] In myth, Orpheus rebuked the sexual advances of the Bistones women after the death of Eurydice, and was killed for not engaging in the activities promoted by the followers of Dionysus.

Warfare

Main article: Thracian warfare
Hunting scene, Thracian tomb of Aleksandrovo, c. 4th century BC

The Thracians were a warrior people, known as both horsemen and lightly armed skirmishers with javelins.[104] Thracian peltasts had a notable influence in Ancient Greece.[105]

The history of Thracian warfare spans from c. 10th century BC up to the 1st century AD in the region defined by Ancient

Greek and Latin historians as Thrace. It concerns the armed conflicts of the Thracian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkans and in the Dacian territories. Emperor Traianus, also known as Trajan, conquered Dacia after two wars in the 2nd century AD. The wars ended with the occupation of the fortress of Sarmisegetusa and the death of the king Decebalus. Besides conflicts between Thracians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among Thracian tribes too.[citation needed
]

Physical appearance

Thracian king and queen. Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak, 4th century BC.
A fresco of a woman in the Ostrusha Mound, in central Bulgaria

Several Thracian graves or tombstones have the name Rufus inscribed on them, meaning "redhead" – a common name given to people with red hair[106] which led to associating the name with slaves when the Romans enslaved this particular group.[107] Ancient Greek artwork often depicts Thracians as redheads.[108] Rhesus of Thrace, a mythological Thracian king, was so named because of his red hair and is depicted on Greek pottery as having red hair and a red beard.[108] Ancient Greek writers also described the Thracians as red-haired. A fragment by the Greek poet Xenophanes describes the Thracians as blue-eyed and red haired:

...Men make gods in their own image; those of the Ethiopians are black and snub-nosed, those of the Thracians have blue eyes and red hair.[109]

Bacchylides described Theseus as wearing a hat with red hair, which classicists believe was Thracian in origin.[110] Other ancient writers who described the hair of the Thracians as red include Hecataeus of Miletus,[111] Galen,[112] Clement of Alexandria,[113] and Julius Firmicus Maternus.[114]

Hunting scene, Thracian tomb of Aleksandrovo, c. 4th century BC

Nevertheless, academic studies[

Ancient Greeks."[115] However, Aris N. Poulianos states that Thracians, like modern Bulgarians, belonged mainly to the Aegean anthropological type.[116]

Notable people

Spartacus was a Thracian gladiator who was one of the escaped slave leaders in the Third Servile War. He led a major slave uprising against the Roman Republic.
Orpheus was a Thracian bard and prophet endowed with legendary musical skills.

This is a list of historically important personalities being entirely or partly of Thracian and Dacian ancestry:

Thracology

Main article: Thracology

Archaeology

See also: Thracian treasure
Panagyurishte Treasure
The golden life-size mask of Teres I

The branch of science that studies the ancient Thracians and Thrace is called

Tomb of Aleksandrovo in Bulgaria, Sarmizegetusa in Romania and others.[citation needed
] Also a large number of elaborately crafted gold and silver treasure sets from the 5th and 4th century BC were unearthed. In the following decades, those were exhibited in museums around the world, thus calling attention to ancient Thracian culture. Since the year 2000, Bulgarian archaeologist Georgi Kitov has made discoveries in Central Bulgaria, in an area now known as "The Valley of the Thracian Kings". The residence of the Odrysian kings was found in Starosel in the Sredna Gora mountains.[122][123] A 1922 Bulgarian study claimed that there were at least 6,269 necropolises[clarification needed] in Bulgaria.[124]

Multidisciplinary Studies

The dominant stance of history and archaeology as the two main disciplines dealing with the Thracians as a subject of research has been succeeded by a clear shift towards new multidisciplinary and more inclusive scientific perspectives. An example of this new trend was the large-scale multidisciplinary project “Thracians – Genesis and Development of the Ethnos, Cultural Identities, Civilization Relations and Heritage of the Antiquity”, launched in 2016 in Bulgaria. The project was the first comprehensive study of the Thracian heritage including 72 scholars from 18 institutes of the Bulgarian Academy of Science, as well as researchers from Canada, Italy, Germany, Japan and Switzerland. The project studied 13 scientific themes among which: formation of the Thracian ethnos, outlining of its ethno-cultural territory, continuity of the gene pool and related DNA studies, architectural, botanical, microbiological, astronomical, acoustic and linguistic aspects, mining and ceramics technologies, food and drink customs, that resulted in an extensively illustrated book including 33 scientific articles.[125]

Genetics

See also: Catacomb culture § Genetics, and Srubnaya culture § Genetics

A genetic study published in Scientific Reports in 2019 examined the mtDNA of 25 Thracian remains in Bulgaria from the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. They were found to harbor a mixture of ancestry from Western Steppe Herders (WSHs) and Early European Farmers (EEFs), supporting the idea that Southeast Europe was the link between Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean.[3]

Bulgarian study from 2013 claims genetic similarity between Thracians (8-6 century BC), medieval Bulgarians (8–10 century AD), and modern Bulgarians, highlighting highest resemblance between them and the ethnic groups in Northern and Middle Italy, Northern Greece and Romania.[126]

Examinations of Iron Age and ancient Thracian remains in Bulgaria were found to mainly carry the Y-DNA haplogroup E-V13.[127][page needed] The tested samples were further specifically listed as: E-BY3880 x 3, E-L618 x 2, E-M78 x 2, R-Z93, E-CTS1273, E-BY14160.[128][page needed] Six of the samples were predicted for having brown eyes while two for having blue eyes, while majority of the samples were predicted for an intermediate skin color and hair color prediction ranged from majority brown on detailed, to light and dark.[129][page needed]

Gallery

See also

References

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  2. ^ Modi et al. 2019. "One of the best documented Indo-European civilizations that inhabited Romania, Bulgaria is the Thracians..."
  3. ^ a b Modi et al. 2019.
  4. ^ a b c Nature (2019) Ancient human mitochondrial genomes from Bronze Age Bulgaria: new insights into the genetic history of Thracians
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  21. ^ Lemprière and Wright,[full citation needed] p. 358. "Mars was father of Cupid, Anteros, and Harmonia, by the goddess Venus. He had Ascalaphus and Ialmenus by Astyoche; Alcippe by Agraulos; Molus, Pylus, Euenus, and oThestius, by Demonice the daughter of Agenor. Besides these, he was the reputed father of Romulus, Oenomaus, Bythis, Thrax, Diomedes of Thrace, &c."
  22. ^ Euripides, Alcestis p. 95. "[Line] 58. 'Thrace's golden shield' – One of the names of Ares was Thrax, he being the Patron of Thrace. His golden or gilded shield was kept in his temple at Bistonia there. Like the other Thracian bucklers, it was of the shape of a half-moon ('Pelta'). His 'festival of Mars Gradivus' was kept annually by the Latins in the month of March, when this sort of shield was displayed."
  23. ^ a b c Schütz, István (2006). Fehér foltok a Balkánon [White spots in the Balkans] (PDF). Balassi Kiadó. p. 57.
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  111. ^ Hecataeus mentions a Thracian tribe called the Xanthoi (Nenci 1954: fragment 191 ) apparently named for their fair (red) hair (Helm 1988: 145), quoted in Indo-European origins: the anthropological evidence Institute for the Study of Man, John v. day, 2001 p. 39.
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