Zeus

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Zeus
King of the gods
Zeus holding a thunderbolt. Zeus de Smyrne, discovered in Smyrna in 1680.[1]
AbodeMount Olympus
SymbolThunderbolt, eagle
Genealogy
ParentsCronus and Rhea
SiblingsHestia, Hades, Hera, Poseidon and Demeter
ConsortHera
Equivalents
RomanJupiter
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Zeus (

thunder god in ancient Greek religion and mythology, who rules as king of the gods on Mount Olympus
.

Zeus is the child of

Muses.[2]

He was respected as a

scepter
.

Name

The god's name in the nominative is Ζεύς (Zeús). It is inflected as follows:

Diogenes Laërtius quotes Pherecydes of Syros as spelling the name Ζάς.[16] The earliest attested forms of the name are the Mycenaean Greek 𐀇𐀸, di-we (dative) and 𐀇𐀺, di-wo (genitive), written in the Linear B syllabic script.[17]

Zeus is the Greek continuation of

pantheon whose name has such a transparent Indo-European etymology.[23]

Plato, in his Cratylus, gives a folk etymology of Zeus meaning "cause of life always to all things", because of puns between alternate titles of Zeus (Zen and Dia) with the Greek words for life and "because of".[24] This etymology, along with Plato's entire method of deriving etymologies, is not supported by modern scholarship.[25][26]

Diodorus Siculus wrote that Zeus was also called Zen, because the humans believed that he was the cause of life (zen).[27] While Lactantius wrote that he was called Zeus and Zen, not because he is the giver of life, but because he was the first who lived of the children of Cronus.[28]

Zeus was called by numerous alternative names or surnames, known as epithets. Some epithets are the surviving names of local gods who were consolidated into the myth of Zeus.[29]

Mythology

Birth

In

Lyctus in Crete, where she gives birth to Zeus,[35] handing the newborn child over to Gaia for her to raise, and Gaia takes him to a cave on Mount Aegaeon (Aegeum).[36] Rhea then gives to Cronus, in the place of a child, a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes, which he promptly swallows, unaware that it is not his son.[37]

While Hesiod gives Lyctus as Zeus's birthplace, he is the only source to do so,

Eumelos of Corinth (8th century BC), according to John the Lydian, considered Zeus to have been born in Lydia,[39] while the Alexandrian poet Callimachus (c. 310 – c. 240 BC), in his Hymn to Zeus, says that he was born in Arcadia.[40] Diodorus Siculus (fl. 1st century BC) seems at one point to give Mount Ida as his birthplace, but later states he is born in Dicte,[41] and the mythographer Apollodorus (first or second century AD) similarly says he was born in a cave in Dicte.[42] In the second century AD, Pausanias wrote that it would be impossible to count all the people claiming that Zeus was born or brought up among them.[43]

Children of Cronus and Rhea[44]
Gaia
CronusRhea
HestiaDemeterHeraHadesPoseidonZEUS

Infancy

Cave of Zeus", Mount Ida, Crete

While the Theogony says nothing of Zeus's upbringing other than that he grew up swiftly,

Kouretes guard the cave and beat their spears on their shields so that Cronus cannot hear the infant's crying.[48] Diodorus Siculus provides a similar account, saying that, after giving birth, Rhea travels to Mount Ida and gives the newborn Zeus to the Kouretes,[49] who then takes him to some nymphs (not named), who raised him on a mixture of honey and milk from the goat Amalthea.[50] He also refers to the Kouretes "rais[ing] a great alarum", and in doing so deceiving Cronus,[51] and relates that when the Kouretes were carrying the newborn Zeus that the umbilical cord fell away at the river Triton.[52]

Hyginus, the author of the Fabulae, relates a version in which Cronus casts Poseidon into the sea and Hades to the Underworld instead of swallowing them. When Zeus is born, Hera (also not swallowed), asks Rhea to give her the young Zeus, and Rhea gives Cronus a stone to swallow.[53] Hera gives him to Amalthea, who hangs his cradle from a tree, where he is not in heaven, on earth or in the sea, meaning that when Cronus later goes looking for Zeus, he is unable to find him.[54] Hyginus also says that Ida, Althaea, and Adrasteia, usually considered the children of Oceanus, are sometimes called the daughters of Melisseus and the nurses of Zeus.[55]

According to a fragment of Epimenides, the nymphs Helike and Kynosura are the young Zeus's nurses. Cronus travels to Crete to look for Zeus, who, to conceal his presence, transforms himself into a snake and his two nurses into bears.[56] According to Musaeus, after Zeus is born, Rhea gives him to Themis. Themis in turn gives him to Amalthea, who owns a she-goat, which nurses the young Zeus.[57]

Antoninus Liberalis, in his Metamorphoses, says that Rhea gives birth to Zeus in a sacred cave in Crete, full of sacred bees, which become the nurses of the infant. While the cave is considered forbidden ground for both mortals and gods, a group of thieves seek to steal honey from it. Upon laying eyes on the swaddling clothes of Zeus, their bronze armour "split[s] away from their bodies", and Zeus would have killed them had it not been for the intervention of the Moirai and Themis; he instead transforms them into various species of birds.[58]

Ascension to power

1st century BC statue of Zeus[59]

According to the Theogony, after Zeus reaches manhood, Cronus is made to disgorge the five children and the stone "by the stratagems of Gaia, but also by the skills and strength of Zeus", presumably in reverse order, vomiting out the stone first, then each of the five children in the opposite order to swallowing.

Hundred-Handers, who (similarly to the Cyclopes) were imprisoned beneath the Earth's surface.[64] He gives them nectar and ambrosia and revives their spirits,[65] and they agree to aid him in the war.[66] Zeus then launches his final attack on the Titans, hurling bolts of lightning upon them while the Hundred-Handers attack with barrages of rocks, and the Titans are finally defeated, with Zeus banishing them to Tartarus and assigning the Hundred-Handers the task of acting as their warders.[67]

Apollodorus provides a similar account, saying that, when Zeus reaches adulthood, he enlists the help of the Oceanid

emetic, forcing to him to disgorge the stone and Zeus's five siblings.[68] Zeus then fights a similar ten-year war against the Titans, until, upon the prophesying of Gaia, he releases the Cyclopes and Hundred-Handers from Tartarus, first slaying their warder, Campe.[69] The Cyclopes give him his thunderbolt, Poseidon his trident and Hades his helmet of invisibility, and the Titans are defeated and the Hundred-Handers made their guards.[69]

According to the Iliad, after the battle with the Titans, Zeus shares the world with his brothers, Poseidon and Hades, by drawing lots: Zeus receives the sky, Poseidon the sea, and Hades the underworld, with the earth and Olympus remaining common ground.[70]

Challenges to power

Zeus (centre-left) battles against Porphyrion (far-right), detail of the Gigantomachy frieze from the Pergamon Altar, Pergamon Museum, Berlin.

Upon assuming his place as king of the cosmos, Zeus's rule is quickly challenged. The first of these challenges to his power comes from the Giants, who fight the Olympian gods in a battle known as the Gigantomachy. According to Hesiod, the Giants are the offspring of Gaia, born from the drops of blood that fell on the ground when Cronus castrated his father Uranus;[71] there is, however, no mention of a battle between the gods and the Giants in the Theogony.[72] It is Apollodorus who provides the most complete account of the Gigantomachy. He says that Gaia, out of anger at how Zeus had imprisoned her children, the Titans, bore the Giants to Uranus.[73] There comes to the gods a prophecy that the Giants cannot be defeated by the gods on their own, but can be defeated only with the help of a mortal; Gaia, upon hearing of this, seeks a special pharmakon (herb) that will prevent the Giants from being killed. Zeus, however, orders Eos (Dawn), Selene (Moon) and Helios (Sun) to stop shining, and harvests all of the herb himself, before having Athena summon Heracles.[74] In the conflict, Porphyrion, one of the most powerful of the Giants, launches an attack upon Heracles and Hera; Zeus, however, causes Porphyrion to become lustful for Hera, and when he is just about to violate her, Zeus strikes him with his thunderbolt, before Heracles deals the fatal blow with an arrow.[75]

In the Theogony, after Zeus defeats the Titans and banishes them to Tartarus, his rule is challenged by the monster Typhon, a giant serpentine creature who battles Zeus for control of the cosmos. According to Hesiod, Typhon is the offspring of Gaia and Tartarus,[76] described as having a hundred snaky fire-breathing heads.[77] Hesiod says he "would have come to reign over mortals and immortals" had it not been for Zeus noticing the monster and dispatching with him quickly:[78] the two of them meet in a cataclysmic battle, before Zeus defeats him easily with his thunderbolt, and the creature is hurled down to Tartarus.[79] Epimenides presents a different version, in which Typhon makes his way into Zeus's palace while he is sleeping, only for Zeus to wake and kill the monster with a thunderbolt.[80] Aeschylus and Pindar give somewhat similar accounts to Hesiod, in that Zeus overcomes Typhon with relative ease, defeating him with his thunderbolt.[81] Apollodorus, in contrast, provides a more complex narrative.[82] Typhon is, similarly to in Hesiod, the child of Gaia and Tartarus, produced out of anger at Zeus's defeat of the Giants.[83] The monster attacks heaven, and all of the gods, out of fear, transform into animals and flee to Egypt, except for Zeus, who attacks the monster with his thunderbolt and sickle.[84] Typhon is wounded and retreats to Mount Kasios in Syria, where Zeus grapples with him, giving the monster a chance to wrap him in his coils, and rip out the sinews from his hands and feet.[85] Disabled, Zeus is taken by Typhon to the Corycian Cave in Cilicia, where he is guarded by the "she-dragon" Delphyne.[86] Hermes and Aegipan, however, steal back Zeus's sinews, and refit them, reviving him and allowing him to return to the battle, pursuing Typhon, who flees to Mount Nysa; there, Typhon is given "ephemeral fruits" by the Moirai, which reduce his strength.[87] The monster then flees to Thrace, where he hurls mountains at Zeus, which are sent back at him by the god's thunderbolts, before, while fleeing to Sicily, Zeus launches Mount Etna upon him, finally ending him.[88] Nonnus, who gives the longest and most detailed account, presents a narrative similar to Apollodorus, with differences such as that it is instead Cadmus and Pan who recovers Zeus's sinews, by luring Typhon with music and then tricking him.[89]

In the Iliad, Homer tells of another attempted overthrow, in which Hera, Poseidon, and Athena conspire to overpower Zeus and tie him in bonds. It is only because of the Nereid Thetis, who summons Briareus, one of the Hecatoncheires, to Olympus, that the other Olympians abandon their plans (out of fear for Briareus).[90]

Partners before Hera

Jupiter, disguised as a shepherd, tempts Mnemosyne by Jacob de Wit (1727)

According to Hesiod, Zeus takes

Oceanid daughters of Oceanus and Tethys, as his first wife. However, when she is about to give birth to a daughter, Athena, he swallows her whole upon the advice of Gaia and Uranus, as it had been foretold that after bearing a daughter, she would give birth to a son, who would overthrow him as king of gods and mortals; it is from this position that Metis gives counsel to Zeus. In time, Athena is born, emerging from Zeus's head, but the foretold son never comes forth.[91] Apollodorus presents a similar version, stating that Metis took many forms in attempting to avoid Zeus's embraces, and that it was Gaia alone who warned Zeus of the son who would overthrow him.[92] According to a fragment likely from the Hesiodic corpus,[93] quoted by Chrysippus, it is out of anger at Hera for producing Hephaestus on her own that Zeus has intercourse with Metis, and then swallows her, thereby giving rise to Athena from himself.[94] A scholiast on the Iliad, in contrast, states that when Zeus swallows her, Metis is pregnant with Athena not by Zeus himself, but by the Cyclops Brontes.[95] The motif of Zeus swallowing Metis can be seen as a continuation of the succession myth: it is prophesied that a son of Zeus will overthrow him, just as he overthrew his father, but whereas Cronos met his end because he did not swallow the real Zeus, Zeus holds onto his power because he successfully swallows the threat, in the form of the potential mother, and so the "cycle of displacement" is brought to an end.[96] In addition, the myth can be seen as an allegory for Zeus gaining the wisdom of Metis for himself by swallowing her.[97]

In Hesiod's account, Zeus's second wife is

Homeric Hymn to Apollo, are born on the island of Delos.[103] In Hesiod's account, only then does Zeus take his sister Hera as his wife.[104]

Children of Zeus and his partners before Hera[105]
ZEUS
Metis[106]
Athena[107]
Themis
Lachesis
Atropos
The HoraeThe Moirai[108]
Eurynome[106]Demeter
Euphrosyne
ThaliaPersephone
The Charites
Mnemosyne
ClioThaleiaTerpsichorePolyhymniaCalliope
EuterpeMelpomeneEratoUrania
The Muses
Leto
ApolloArtemis

Marriage to Hera

Wedding of Zeus and Hera on an antique fresco from Pompeii

While Hera is Zeus's last wife in Hesiod's version, in other accounts she is his first and only wife.[109] In the Theogony, the couple has three children, Ares, Hebe, and Eileithyia.[110] While Hesiod states that Hera produces Hephaestus on her own after Athena is born from Zeus's head,[111] other versions, including Homer, have Hephaestus as a child of Zeus and Hera as well.[112]

Various authors give descriptions of a youthful affair between Zeus and Hera. In the Iliad, the pair are described as having first lay with each other before Cronus is sent to Tartarus, without the knowledge of their parents.[113] A scholiast on the Iliad states that, after Cronus is banished to Tartarus, Oceanus and Tethys give Hera to Zeus in marriage, and only shortly after the two are wed, Hera gives birth to Hephaestus, having lay secretly with Zeus on the island of Samos beforehand; to conceal this act, she claimed that she had produced Hephaestus on her own.[114] According to another scholiast on the Iliad, Callimachus, in his Aetia, says that Zeus lay with Hera for three hundred years on the island of Samos.[115]

According to a scholion on Theocritus' Idylls, Zeus, one day seeing Hera walking apart from the other gods, becomes intent on having intercourse with her, and transforms himself into a cuckoo bird, landing on Mount Thornax. He creates a terrible storm, and when Hera arrives at the mountain and sees the bird, which sits on her lap, she takes pity on it, laying her cloak over it. Zeus then transforms back and takes hold of her; when she refuses to have intercourse with him because of their mother, he promises that she will become his wife.[116] Pausanias similarly refers to Zeus transforming himself into a cuckoo to woo Hera, and identifies the location as Mount Thornax.[117]

According to a version from

Photius, in his Bibliotheca, tells us that in Ptolemy Hephaestion's New History, Hera refuses to lay with Zeus, and hides in a cave to avoid him, before an earthborn man named Achilles convinces her to marry Zeus, leading to the pair first sleeping with each other.[120] According to Stephanus of Byzantium, Zeus and Hera first lay together at the city of Hermione, having come there from Crete.[121] Callimachus, in a fragment from his Aetia, also apparently makes reference to the couple's union occurring at Naxos.[122]

Though no complete account of Zeus and Hera's wedding exists, various authors make reference to it. According to a scholiast on

Varro the statement that the couple are married on the island of Samos.[127]

There exist several stories in which Zeus, receiving advice, is able to reconcile with an angered Hera. According to Pausanias, Hera, angry with her husband, retreats to the island of Euboea, where she was raised, and Zeus, unable to resolve the situation, seeks the advice of Cithaeron, ruler of

Plataia, and upon discovering the trick, the couple are reconciled, with the matter ending in joy and laughter among all involved.[129]

Children of Zeus and Hera[130]
ZEUSHera
HebeAresEileithyiaHephaestus[131]

Affairs

Zeus carrying away Ganymede (Late Archaic terracotta, 480–470 BC)

After his marriage to Hera, different authors describe Zeus's numerous affairs with various mortal women.

Danae in the form of a shower of gold,[138] and according to Ovid he abducts Aegina in the form of a flame.[139]

In accounts of Zeus's affairs, Hera is often depicted as a jealous wife, with there being various stories of her persecuting either the women with whom Zeus sleeps, or their children by him.[140] Several authors relate that Zeus sleeps with Io, a priestess of Hera, who is subsequently turned into a cow, and suffers at Hera's hands: according to Apollodorus, Hera sends a gadfly to sting the cow, driving her all the way to Egypt, where she is finally transformed back into human form.[141] In later accounts of Zeus's affair with Semele, a daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, Hera tricks her into persuading Zeus to grant her any promise. Semele asks him to come to her as he comes to his own wife Hera, and when Zeus upholds this promise, she dies out of fright and is reduced to ashes.[142] According to Callimachus, after Zeus sleeps with Callisto, Hera turns her into a bear, and instructs Artemis to shoot her.[143] In addition, Zeus's son by Alcmene, the hero Heracles, is persecuted continuously throughout his mortal life by Hera, up until his apotheosis.[144]

According to Diodorus Siculus, Alcmene, the mother of Heracles, was the very last mortal woman Zeus ever slept with; following the birth of Heracles, he ceased to beget humans altogether, and fathered no more children.[145]

List of disguises used by Zeus

Disguise When desiring
Eagle or flame of fire Aegina [146]
Amphitryon Alcmene [147]
Satyr Antiope [148]
Artemis or Apollo Callisto [149]
Shower of gold Danaë [150]
Bull Europa [151]
Eagle Ganymede [152]
Cuckoo Hera [153]
Swan Leda [154]
Goose Nemesis [155]

Offspring

The following is a list of Zeus's offspring, by various mothers. Beside each offspring, the earliest source to record the parentage is given, along with the century to which the source dates.

Offspring Mother Source Date
Heracles Alcmene Hes. Theog. 8th cent. BC [156]
Persephone Demeter Hes. Theog. 8th cent. BC [157]
Eurynome Hes. Theog. 8th cent. BC [158]
Eunomia Orphic Hymns 2nd/3rd cent. AD [159]
Euanthe or Eurydome or Eurymedusa Cornutus 1st cent. AD [160]
Ares, Eileithyia, Hebe Hera Hes. Theog. 8th cent. BC [161]
Apollo, Artemis Leto Hes. Theog. 8th cent. BC [162]
Hermes Maia Hes. Theog. 8th cent. BC [163]
Athena Metis Hes. Theog. 8th cent. BC [164]
Mnemosyne Hes. Theog. 8th cent. BC [165]
Dionysus Semele Hes. Theog. 8th cent. BC [166]
Themis Hes. Theog. 8th cent. BC [167]
Hes. Theog. 8th cent. BC [167]
Aphrodite Dione Hom. Il. 8th cent. BC [168]
Perseus Danaë Hom. Il. 8th cent. BC [169]
Pirithous Dia Hom. Il. 8th cent. BC [170]
Minos
Europa
 Hom. Il. 8th cent. BC [171]
Rhadamanthus Hom. Il. 8th cent. BC [172]
Sarpedon
 Hes. Cat. 6th cent. BC [173]
Amphion, Zethus Antiope Hom. Od. 8th cent. BC [174]
Angelos
 Hera Sophron 5th cent. BC [175]
Eleutheria [176]
Eris Hom. Il. 8th cent. BC [177]
Hephaestus Hom. Il. 8th cent. BC [178]
Sarpedon Laodamia Hom. Il. 8th cent. BC [179]
Helen, Castor and Pollux Leda Hom. Il. 8th cent. BC [180]
Helen of Troy
Nemesis
 Cypria 7th cent. BC [181]
Graecus, Latinus
Pandora
 Hes. Cat. 6th cent. BC [182]
Hellen Pyrrha Hes. Cat. 6th cent. BC [183]
Magnes, Makednos
Thyia
 Hes. Cat. 6th cent. BC [184]
Tyche Aphrodite Pindar 5th cent. BC [185]
Targitaos Borysthenis Hdt. 5th cent. BC [186]
Carius Torrhebia Hellanicus 5th cent. BC [187]
Tityos Elara Pherecydes 5th cent. BC [188]
Coria (Athene) Coryphe Cic. DND 1st cent. BC [189]
Cronius, Spartaios, Cytus Himalia Diod. Sic. 1st cent. BC [190]
Saon Nymphe Dion. Hal. 1st cent. BC [191]
Heracles Lysithoe Cic. DND 1st cent. BC [192]
Aegipan
Aega
, Aix or Boetis 		Hyg. Fab. 1st cent. AD [193]
Corybantes Calliope Strabo 1st cent. AD [194]
Colaxes Hora
Valer. Flacc.
 1st cent. AD [195]
Tantalus Pluto Hyg. Fab. 1st cent. AD [196]
Asopus Eurynome Apollod. 1st/2nd cent. AD [197]
Pan Hybris Apollod. 1st/2nd cent. AD [198]
Arcas
Callisto
 Apollod. 1st/2nd cent. AD [199]
Endymion Calyce Apollod. 1st/2nd cent. AD [200]
Argus, Pelasgus Niobe Apollod. 1st/2nd cent. AD [201]
Dardanus Electra Apollod. 1st/2nd cent. AD [202]
Emathion Nonnus 5th cent. AD [203]
Iasion or Eetion Apollod. 1st/2nd cent. AD [202]
Harmonia
 Diod. Sic. 1st cent. BC [204]
Aeacus Aegina Apollod. 1st/2nd cent. AD [205]
Damocrateia Pythaenetus [206]
Britomartis Carme Paus. 2nd cent. AD [207]
Hecate Asteria Musaeus [208]
Heracles Athenaeus 3rd cent. AD [209]
Acragas Asterope Steph. Byz. 6th cent. AD [210]
Dionysus Demeter [211]
Dodon Europa Acestodorus [212]
Agdistis Earth Paus. 2nd cent. AD [213]
Manes Dion. Hal. 1st cent. BC [214]
Cyprian Centaurs Nonnus 5th cent. AD [215]
Melinoë Persephone Orphic Hymns 2nd/3rd cent. AD [216]
Zagreus Nonnus 5th cent. AD [217]
Dionysus
Dionysus Selene Cic. DND 1st cent. BC [218]
Ersa Alcman 7th cent. BC [219]
Nemea Schol. Pind. [220]
Pandia HH 32 5th cent. BC [221]
Persephone Styx Apollod. 1st/2nd cent. AD [222]
Rhea Athenag. 2nd cent. AD [223]
Palici Thalia
Servius
 4th/5th cent. AD [224]
Myrmidon Eurymedousa [225]
Cres Idaea Steph. Byz. 6th cent. AD [226]
Epaphus Io Apollod. 1st/2nd cent. AD [227]
Keroessa
 Nonnus 5th cent. AD [228]
Meliteus Othreis Ant. Lib. 2nd/3rd cent. AD [229]
Lacedaemon
 Taygete Paus. 2nd cent. AD [230]
Archas Themisto Istros [231]
Megarus Nymph Sithnid Paus. 2nd cent. AD [232]
Olenus Anaxithea Steph. Byz. 6th cent. AD [233]
Milye, Solymus Chaldene Steph. Byz. 6th cent. AD [234]
Arcesius Euryodeia
Orchomenus Hesione [235]
Agamedes Iocaste [236]
Acheilus
 Lamia Ptol. Heph. [237]
Libyan Sibyl (Herophile) Lamia Paus. 2nd cent. AD [238]
Locrus Maera [239]
Achaeus Phthia
Servius
 4th/5th cent. AD [240]
Aethlius Protogeneia Apollod. 1st/2nd cent. AD [241]
Aetolus
 Hyg. Fab. 1st cent. AD [242]
Opus Pindar 5th cent. BC [243]
Aegyptus Thebe
Tzetzes
 12th cent. AD [244]
Heracles John Lydus 6th cent. AD [245]
Thebe Iodame
Tzetzes
 12th cent. AD [244]
Aletheia No mother mentioned
Ate
 Hom. Il. 8th cent. BC [246]
Nysean Ap. Rhod. 3rd cent. BC [247]
Eubuleus Orphic Hymns 2nd/3rd cent. AD [248]
Litae Hom. Il. 8th cent. BC [249]
Phasis
Valer. Flacc.
 1st cent. AD [250]
Calabrus, Geraestus, Taenarus Steph. Byz. 6th cent. AD [251]
Corinthus Paus. 2nd cent. AD [252]
Crinacus Diod. Sic. 1st cent. BC [253]

Prometheus and conflicts with humans

Summits of Mount Olympus

When the gods met at Mecone to discuss which portions they will receive after a sacrifice, the titan

humans receive the better portions. He sacrificed a large ox
, and divided it into two piles. In one pile he put all the meat and most of the fat, covering it with the ox's grotesque stomach, while in the other pile, he dressed up the bones with fat. Prometheus then invited Zeus to choose; Zeus chose the pile of bones. This set a precedent for sacrifices, where humans will keep the fat for themselves and burn the bones for the gods.

Zeus, enraged at Prometheus's deception, prohibited the use of fire by humans. Prometheus, however, stole fire from Olympus in a fennel stalk and gave it to humans. This further enraged Zeus, who punished Prometheus by binding him to a cliff, where an eagle constantly ate Prometheus's liver, which regenerated every night. Prometheus was eventually freed from his misery by Heracles.[254]

Now Zeus, angry at humans, decides to give humanity a punishing gift to compensate for the boon they had been given. He commands Hephaestus to mold from earth the first woman, a "beautiful evil" whose descendants would torment the human race. After Hephaestus does so, several other gods contribute to her creation. Hermes names the woman 'Pandora'.

Pandora was given in marriage to Prometheus's brother Epimetheus. Zeus gave her a jar which contained many evils. Pandora opened the jar and released all the evils, which made mankind miserable. Only hope remained inside the jar.[255]

When Zeus was atop Mount Olympus he was appalled by human sacrifice and other signs of human decadence. He decided to wipe out mankind and flooded the world with the help of his brother Poseidon. After the flood, only Deucalion and Pyrrha remained.[256] This flood narrative is a common motif in mythology.[257]

The Chariot of Zeus, from an 1879 Stories from the Greek Tragedians by Alfred Church.

In the Iliad

Jupiter and Juno on Mount Ida by James Barry, 1773 (City Art Galleries, Sheffield.)

The

epic poem attributed to Homer about the Trojan War and the battle over the City of Troy
, in which Zeus plays a major part.

Scenes in which Zeus appears include:[258][259]

  • Book 2: Zeus sends Agamemnon a dream and is able to partially control his decisions because of the effects of the dream
  • Book 4: Zeus promises Hera to ultimately destroy the City of Troy at the end of the war
  • Book 7: Zeus and Poseidon ruin the Achaeans fortress
  • Book 8: Zeus prohibits the other Gods from fighting each other and has to return to Mount Ida where he can think over his decision that the Greeks will lose the war
  • Book 14: Zeus is seduced by Hera and becomes distracted while she helps out the Greeks
  • Book 15: Zeus wakes up and realizes that his own brother, Poseidon has been aiding the Greeks, while also sending Hector and Apollo to help fight the Trojans ensuring that the City of Troy will fall
  • Book 16: Zeus is upset that he could not help save Sarpedon's life because it would then contradict his previous decisions
  • Book 17: Zeus is emotionally hurt by the fate of Hector
  • Book 20: Zeus lets the other Gods lend aid to their respective sides in the war
  • Book 24: Zeus demands that Achilles release the corpse of Hector to be buried honourably

Other myths

When Hades requested to marry Zeus's daughter, Persephone, Zeus approved and advised Hades to abduct Persephone, as her mother Demeter would not allow her to marry Hades.[260]

In the

Orphic "Rhapsodic Theogony" (first century BC/AD),[261] Zeus wanted to marry his mother Rhea. After Rhea refused to marry him, Zeus turned into a snake and raped her. Rhea became pregnant and gave birth to Persephone. Zeus in the form of a snake would mate with his daughter Persephone, which resulted in the birth of Dionysus.[262]

Zeus granted

Phegeus and his two sons.[263]

Both Zeus and Poseidon wooed Thetis, daughter of Nereus. But when Themis (or Prometheus) prophesied that the son born of Thetis would be mightier than his father, Thetis was married off to the mortal Peleus.[264][265]

Zeus was afraid that his grandson Asclepius would teach resurrection to humans, so he killed Asclepius with his thunderbolt. This angered Asclepius's father, Apollo, who in turn killed the Cyclopes who had fashioned the thunderbolts of Zeus. Angered at this, Zeus would have imprisoned Apollo in Tartarus. However, at the request of Apollo's mother, Leto, Zeus instead ordered Apollo to serve as a slave to King Admetus of Pherae for a year.[266] According to Diodorus Siculus, Zeus killed Asclepius because of complains from Hades, who was worried that the number of people in the underworld was diminishing because of Asclepius's resurrections.[267]

The winged horse Pegasus carried the thunderbolts of Zeus.[268]

Zeus took pity on Ixion, a man who was guilty of murdering his father-in-law, by purifying him and bringing him to Olympus. However, Ixion started to lust after Hera. Hera complained about this to her husband, and Zeus decided to test Ixion. Zeus fashioned a cloud that resembles Hera (Nephele) and laid the cloud-Hera in Ixion's bed. Ixion coupled with Nephele, resulting in the birth of Centaurus. Zeus punished Ixion for lusting after Hera by tying him to a wheel that spins forever.[269]

Once, Helios the sun god gave his chariot to his inexperienced son Phaethon to drive. Phaethon could not control his father's steeds so he ended up taking the chariot too high, freezing the earth, or too low, burning everything to the ground. The earth itself prayed to Zeus, and in order to prevent further disaster, Zeus hurled a thunderbolt at Phaethon, killing him and saving the world from further harm.[270] In a satirical work, Dialogues of the Gods by Lucian, Zeus berates Helios for allowing such thing to happen; he returns the damaged chariot to him and warns him that if he dares do that again, he will strike him with one of this thunderbolts.[271]

Roles and epithets

See also: Epithets of Zeus
Roman marble colossal head of Zeus, 2nd century AD (British Museum)[272]

Zeus played a dominant role, presiding over the

local cults. Though the Homeric "cloud collector" was the god of the sky and thunder like his Near-Eastern counterparts, he was also the supreme cultural artifact; in some senses, he was the embodiment of Greek religious beliefs and the archetypal
Greek deity.

Popular conceptions of Zeus differed widely from place to place. Local varieties of Zeus often have little in common with each other except the name. They exercised different areas of authority and were worshiped in different ways; for example, some local cults conceived of Zeus as a

chthonic earth-god rather than a god of the sky. These local divinities were gradually consolidated, via conquest and religious syncretism, with the Homeric conception of Zeus. Local or idiosyncratic versions of Zeus were given epithets — surnames or titles which distinguish different conceptions of the god.[29]

These epithets or titles applied to Zeus emphasized different aspects of his wide-ranging authority:

Zeus of Otricoli, a late Hellenistic or early Imperial bust after a 4th century BC Greek statue[277]

Cults

Archaeological Museum of Dion
.

Panhellenic cults

Istanbul Archaeology Museum).

The major center where all Greeks converged to pay honor to their chief god was Olympia. Their quadrennial festival

featured the famous Games. There was also an altar to Zeus made not of stone, but of ash, from the accumulated remains of many centuries' worth of animals sacrificed there.

Outside of the major inter-

Asia Minor to Sicily
. Certain modes of ritual were held in common as well: sacrificing a white animal over a raised altar, for instance.

Zeus Velchanos

With one exception, Greeks were unanimous in recognizing the birthplace of Zeus as Crete. Minoan culture contributed many essentials of ancient Greek religion: "by a hundred channels the old civilization emptied itself into the new", Will Durant observed,[279] and Cretan Zeus retained his youthful Minoan features. The local child of the Great Mother, "a small and inferior deity who took the roles of son and consort",[280] whose Minoan name the Greeks Hellenized as Velchanos, was in time assumed as an epithet by Zeus, as transpired at many other sites, and he came to be venerated in Crete as Zeus Velchanos ("boy-Zeus"), often simply the Kouros.

In

Ida and Palaikastro. In the Hellenistic period a small sanctuary dedicated to Zeus Velchanos was founded at the Hagia Triada site of an earlier Minoan town. Broadly contemporary coins from Phaistos show the form under which he was worshiped: a youth sits among the branches of a tree, with a cockerel on his knees.[281] On other Cretan coins Velchanos is represented as an eagle and in association with a goddess celebrating a mystic marriage.[282] Inscriptions at Gortyn and Lyttos record a Velchania festival, showing that Velchanios was still widely venerated in Hellenistic Crete.[283]

The stories of

Kouretes, a band of ecstatic armed dancers, he presided over the rigorous military-athletic training and secret rites of the Cretan paideia
.

The myth of the death of Cretan Zeus, localised in numerous mountain sites though only mentioned in a comparatively late source,

mythic swarm of bees, suggests that Velchanos had been an annual vegetative spirit.[286]
The Hellenistic writer
patristic
writers took up the suggestion.

Zeus Lykaios

Further information: Lykaia
Cabinet des Médailles
).

The epithet Zeus Lykaios (Λύκαιος; "wolf-Zeus") is assumed by Zeus only in connection with the archaic festival of the

Arcadia; Zeus had only a formal connection[287] with the rituals and myths of this primitive rite of passage with an ancient threat of cannibalism and the possibility of a werewolf transformation for the ephebes who were the participants.[288] Near the ancient ash-heap where the sacrifices took place[289] was a forbidden precinct in which, allegedly, no shadows were ever cast.[290]

According to Plato,[291] a particular clan would gather on the mountain to make a sacrifice every nine years to Zeus Lykaios, and a single morsel of human entrails would be intermingled with the animal's. Whoever ate the human flesh was said to turn into a wolf, and could only regain human form if he did not eat again of human flesh until the next nine-year cycle had ended. There were games associated with the Lykaia, removed in the fourth century to the first urbanization of Arcadia, Megalopolis; there the major temple was dedicated to Zeus Lykaios.

There is, however, the crucial detail that Lykaios or Lykeios (epithets of Zeus and Apollo) may derive from Proto-Greek *λύκη, "light", a noun still attested in compounds such as ἀμφιλύκη, "twilight", λυκάβας, "year" (lit. 'light's course") etc. This, Cook argues, brings indeed much new 'light' to the matter as Achaeus, the contemporary tragedian of Sophocles, spoke of Zeus Lykaios as "starry-eyed", and this Zeus Lykaios may just be the Arcadian Zeus, son of Aether, described by Cicero. Again under this new signification may be seen Pausanias' descriptions of Lykosoura being 'the first city that ever the sun beheld', and of the altar of Zeus, at the summit of Mount Lykaion, before which stood two columns bearing gilded eagles and 'facing the sun-rise'. Further Cook sees only the tale of Zeus's sacred precinct at Mount Lykaion allowing no shadows referring to Zeus as 'god of light' (Lykaios).[292]

A statue of Zeus in a drawing.

Additional cults

Although etymology indicates that Zeus was originally a sky god, many Greek cities honored a local Zeus who lived underground. Athenians and Sicilians honored Zeus Meilichios (Μειλίχιος; "kindly" or "honeyed") while other cities had Zeus Chthonios ("earthy"), Zeus Katachthonios (Καταχθόνιος; "under-the-earth") and Zeus Plousios ("wealth-bringing"). These deities might be represented as snakes or in human form in visual art, or, for emphasis as both together in one image. They also received offerings of black animal victims sacrificed into sunken pits, as did

chthonic deities like Persephone and Demeter, and also the heroes
at their tombs. Olympian gods, by contrast, usually received white victims sacrificed upon raised altars.

In some cases, cities were not entirely sure whether the daimon to whom they sacrificed was a hero or an underground Zeus. Thus the shrine at Lebadaea in

Tralles there was the Zeus Larisaeus (Λαρισαιος).[293] In Ithome, they honored the Zeus Ithomatas, they had a sanctuary and a statue of Zeus and also held an annual festival in honour of Zeus which was called Ithomaea (ἰθώμαια).[294]

Hecatomphonia

Hecatomphonia (

Messenians, at which they offered sacrifice to Zeus when any of them had killed a hundred enemies. Aristomenes have offered three times this sacrifice at the Messenian wars against Sparta.[295][296][297][298]

Non-panhellenic cults

Museo Barracco
, Rome).

In addition to the Panhellenic titles and conceptions listed above, local cults maintained their own idiosyncratic ideas about the king of gods and men. With the epithet Zeus Aetnaeus he was worshiped on Mount Aetna, where there was a statue of him, and a local festival called the Aetnaea in his honor.[299] Other examples are listed below. As Zeus Aeneius or Zeus Aenesius (Αινησιος), he was worshiped in the island of Cephalonia, where he had a temple on Mount Aenos.[300]

Oracles

Although most oracle sites were usually dedicated to

Heliopolis, were associated with Zeus in Greek or Jupiter
in Latin.

The Oracle at Dodona

The cult of Zeus at Dodona in Epirus, where there is evidence of religious activity from the second millennium BC onward, centered on a sacred oak. When the Odyssey was composed (circa 750 BC), divination was done there by barefoot priests called Selloi, who lay on the ground and observed the rustling of the leaves and branches.[301] By the time Herodotus wrote about Dodona, female priestesses called peleiades ("doves") had replaced the male priests.

Zeus's consort at Dodona was not

titaness
suggests to some that she may have been a more powerful pre-Hellenic deity, and perhaps the original occupant of the oracle.

The Oracle at Siwa

The

Zeus Ammon in his account of the Persian War. Zeus Ammon was especially favored at Sparta, where a temple to him existed by the time of the Peloponnesian War.[302]

After Alexander made a trek into the desert to consult the oracle at Siwa, the figure arose in the Hellenistic imagination of a Libyan Sibyl.

Identifications with other gods

Foreign gods

Indo-Greek coinage: from the Classical motif of Nike handing the wreath of victory to Zeus himself (left, coin of Heliocles I 145-130 BC), then to a baby elephant (middle, coin of Antialcidas 115-95 BC), and then to the Wheel of the Law, symbol of Buddhism (right, coin of Menander II
90–85 BC).
Buddha. 2nd century, Greco-Buddhist art.[303]

Zeus was identified with the

Sabazius. The Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes erected a statue of Zeus Olympios in the Judean Temple in Jerusalem.[304] Hellenizing Jews referred to this statue as Baal Shamen (in English, Lord of Heaven).[305]
Zeus is also identified with the Hindu deity Indra. Not only they are the king of gods, but their weapon - thunder is similar.[306]

Helios

Zeus is occasionally conflated with the Hellenic

*Dyḗus Pḥatḗr (see Hvare-khshaeta).[309] Euripides in his now lost tragedy Mysians described Zeus as "sun-eyed", and Helios is said elsewhere to be "the brilliant eye of Zeus, giver of life".[310] In another of Euripides's tragedies, Medea, the chorus refers to Helios as "light born from Zeus."[311]

Although the connection of Helios to Zeus does not seem to have basis in early Greek cult and writings, nevertheless there are many examples of direct identification in later times.

Mithras,[314] and a series of inscriptions from Trachonitis give evidence of the cult of "Zeus the Unconquered Sun".[315] There is evidence of Zeus being worshipped as a solar god in the Aegean island of Amorgos, based on a lacunose inscription Ζεὺς Ἥλ[ιο]ς ("Zeus the Sun"), meaning sun elements of Zeus's worship could be as early as the fifth century BC.[316]

The Cretan Zeus Tallaios had solar elements to his cult. "Talos" was the local equivalent of Helios.[317]

Later representations

Philosophy

In Neoplatonism, Zeus's relation to the gods familiar from mythology is taught as the Demiurge or Divine Mind, specifically within Plotinus's work the Enneads[318] and the Platonic Theology of Proclus.

The Bible

Zeus is mentioned in the New Testament twice, first in Acts 14:8–13: When the people living in

Apostle Paul heal a lame man, they considered Paul and his partner Barnabas to be gods, identifying Paul with Hermes and Barnabas with Zeus, even trying to offer them sacrifices with the crowd. Two ancient inscriptions discovered in 1909 near Lystra testify to the worship of these two gods in that city.[319] One of the inscriptions refers to the "priests of Zeus", and the other mentions "Hermes Most Great" and "Zeus the sun-god".[320]

The second occurrence is in Acts 28:11: the name of the ship in which the prisoner Paul set sail from the island of Malta bore the figurehead "Sons of Zeus" aka Castor and Pollux (Dioscuri).

The deuterocanonical book of

Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), who in his attempt to stamp out the Jewish religion, directed that the temple at Jerusalem be profaned and rededicated to Zeus (Jupiter Olympius).[321]

Genealogy

Zeus's family tree[322]
Gaia
Uranus' genitalsCoeusPhoebeCronusRhea
LetoZEUSHeraPoseidonHadesDemeterHestia
ApolloArtemis    a[323]
     b[324]
AresHephaestus
Metis
Athena[325]
Maia
Hermes
Semele
Dionysus
Dione
    a[326]     b[327]
Aphrodite
  • The abduction of Europa
    The abduction of Europa
  • Olympian assembly, from left to right: Apollo, Zeus and Hera
    Olympian assembly, from left to right: Apollo, Zeus and Hera
  • The "Golden Man" Zeus statue
    The "Golden Man" Zeus statue
  • Enthroned Zeus (Greek, c. 100 BC) - modeled after the Olympian Zeus by Pheidas (c. 430 BC)
    Enthroned Zeus (Greek, c. 100 BC) - modeled after the Olympian Zeus by Pheidas (c. 430 BC)
  • Zeus and Hera
    Zeus and Hera
  • Zeus/Poseidon statue
    Zeus/Poseidon statue

See also

Footnotes

  1. romanized: Déos [dé.os]
    Greek: Δίας, romanized: Días Modern Greek: [ˈði.as̠]

Notes

  1. Louvre Museum (Official online catalog
    )
  2. ^
    ISBN 978-0-316-34114-1. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help
    )
  3. ^ Hard 2004, p. 79.
  4. Brill's New Pauly, s.v. Zeus
    .
  5. ^ Homer, Il., Book V.
  6. ^ Plato, Symposium 180e.
  7. ^ There are two major conflicting stories for Aphrodite's origins: Hesiod's Theogony claims that she was born from the foam of the sea after Cronos castrated Uranus, making her Uranus's daughter, while Homer's Iliad has Aphrodite as the daughter of Zeus and Dione.[5] A speaker in Plato's Symposium offers that they were separate figures: Aphrodite Ourania and Aphrodite Pandemos.[6]
  8. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 886–900.
  9. ^ Homeric Hymns.
  10. ^ Hesiod, Theogony.
  11. ^ Burkert, Greek Religion.
  12. ^ See, e.g., Homer, Il., I.503 & 533.
  13. ^ Pausanias, 2.24.4.
  14. Brill's New Pauly
    , s.v. Zeus.
  15. Perseus Project
    .
  16. ^ Laërtius, Diogenes (1972) [1925]. "1.11". In Hicks, R.D. (ed.). Lives of Eminent Philosophers. "1.11". Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers (in Greek).
  17. ^ "The Linear B word di-we". "The Linear B word di-wo". Palaeolexicon: Word study tool of Ancient languages.
  18. ^ a b "Zeus". American Heritage Dictionary. Retrieved 3 July 2006.
  19. ^ Robert S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill Publishers, 2009, p. 499.
  20. Online Etymology Dictionary
    .
  21. S2CID 161016819
    .
  22. ^ Søborg, Tobias Mosbæk (2020). Sigmatic Verbal Formations in Anatolian and Indo-European: A Cladistic Study (Thesis). University of Copenhagen, Department of Nordic Studies and Linguistics. p. 74..
  23. ISBN 0-674-36280-2
    .
  24. ^ "Plato's Cratylus" by Plato, ed. by David Sedley, Cambridge University Press, 6 November 2003, p. 91
  25. ^ Jevons, Frank Byron (1903). The Makers of Hellas. C. Griffin, Limited. pp. 554–555.
  26. ISBN 1556197497
    .
  27. ^ "Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, Books I-V, book 5, chapter 72". www.perseus.tufts.edu.
  28. ^ Lactantius, Divine Institutes 1.11.1.
  29. ^
    JSTOR 310320
    .
  30. ^ See Gantz, pp. 10–11; Hesiod, Theogony 159–83.
  31. ^ Hard 2004, p. 67; Hansen, p. 67; Tripp, s.v. Zeus, p. 605; Caldwell, p. 9, table 12; Hesiod, Theogony 453–8. So too Apollodorus, 1.1.5; Diodorus Siculus, 68.1.
  32. ^ Gantz, p. 41; Hard 2004, p. 67–8; Grimal, s.v. Zeus, p. 467; Hesiod, Theogony 459–67. Compare with Apollodorus, 1.1.5, who gives a similar account, and Diodorus Siculus, 70.1–2, who does not mention Cronus's parents, but rather says that it was an oracle who gave the prophecy.
  33. ^ Cf. Apollodorus, 1.1.6, who says that Rhea was "enraged".
  34. ^ Hard 2004, p. 68; Gantz, p. 41; Smith, s.v. Zeus; Hesiod, Theogony 468–73.
  35. ^ Hard 2004, p. 74; Gantz, p. 41; Hesiod, Theogony 474–9.
  36. ^ Hard 2004, p. 74; Hesiod, Theogony 479–84. According to Hard 2004, the "otherwise unknown" Mount Aegaeon can "presumably ... be identified with one of the various mountains near Lyktos".
  37. Beazley Archive 214648. According to Pausanias, 9.41.6, this event occurs at Petrachus, a "crag" nearby to Chaeronea
    (see West 1966, p. 301 on line 485).
  38. ^ West 1966, p. 291 on lines 453–506; Hard 2004, p. 75.
  39. Mt. Sipylos
    ".
  40. ^ Fowler 2013, p. 391; Grimal, s.v. Zeus, p. 467; Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus (1) 4–11 (pp. 36–9).
  41. ^ Fowler 2013, p. 391; Diodorus Siculus, 70.2, 70.6.
  42. ^ Apollodorus, 1.1.6.
  43. ^ "Pausanias, Description of Greece, Messenia, chapter 33, section 1". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 18 March 2025.
  44. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 133–8, 453–8 (Most, pp. 12, 13, 38, 39); Caldwell, p. 4, table 2, p. 9, table 12.
  45. ^ Hard 2004, p. 68; Gantz, p. 41; Hesiod, Theogony 492–3: "the strength and glorious limbs of the prince increased quickly".
  46. ^ West 1983, p. 122; Apollodorus, 1.1.6.
  47. ^ Hard 2004, p. 612 n. 53 to p. 75; Apollodorus, 1.1.7.
  48. ^ Hansen, p. 216; Apollodorus, 1.1.7.
  49. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 7.70.2; see also 7.65.4.
  50. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 7.70.2–3.
  51. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 7.65.4.
  52. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 7.70.4.
  53. ^ Gantz, p. 42; Hyginus, Fabulae 139.
  54. ^ Gantz, p. 42; Hard 2004, p. 75; Hyginus, Fabulae 139.
  55. ^ Smith and Trzaskoma, p. 191 on line 182; West 1983, p. 133 n. 40; Hyginus, Fabulae 182 (Smith and Trzaskoma, p. 158).
  56. ^ Hard 2004, p. 75–6; Gantz, p. 42; Epimenides fr. 23 Diels, p. 193 [= Scholia on Aratus, 46]. Zeus later marks the event by placing the constellations of the Dragon, the Greater Bear and the Lesser Bear in the sky.
  57. ^ Gantz, p. 41; Gee, p. 131–2; Frazer, p. 120; Musaeus fr. 8 Diels, pp. 181–2 [= Eratosthenes, Catasterismi 13 (Hard 2015, p. 44; Olivieri, p. 17)]; Musaeus apud Hyginus, De astronomia 2.13.6. According to Eratosthenes, Musaeus considers the she-goat to be a child of Helios, and to be "so terrifying to behold" that the Titans ask for it to be hidden in one of the caves in Crete; hence Earth places it in the care of Amalthea, who nurses Zeus on its milk.
  58. ^ Hard 2004, p. 75; Antoninus Liberalis, 19.
  59. ^ J. Paul Getty Museum 73.AA.32.
  60. ^ Gantz, p. 44; Hard 2004, p. 68; Hesiod, Theogony 492–7.
  61. ^ Hard 2004, p. 68; Hesiod, Theogony 498–500.
  62. ^ Hard 2004, p. 68; Gantz, p. 44; Hesiod, Theogony 501–6. The Cyclopes presumably remained trapped below the earth since being put there by Uranus (Hard 2004, p. 68).
  63. ^ Hard 2004, p. 68; Gantz, p. 45; Hesiod, Theogony 630–4.
  64. ^ Hard 2004, p. 68; Hesiod, Theogony 624–9, 635–8. As Gantz, p. 45 notes, the Theogony is ambiguous as to whether the Hundred-Handers were freed before the war or only during its tenth year.
  65. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 639–53.
  66. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 654–63.
  67. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 687–735.
  68. ^ Hard 2004, p. 69; Gantz, p. 44; Apollodorus, 1.2.1.
  69. ^ a b Hard 2004, p. 69; Apollodorus, 1.2.1.
  70. Homeric Hymn to Demeter (2), 85–6
    .
  71. ^ Hard 2004, p. 86; Hesiod, Theogony 183–7.
  72. ^ Hard 2004, p. 86; Gantz, p. 446.
  73. ^ Gantz, p. 449; Hard 2004, p. 90; Apollodorus, 1.6.1.
  74. ^ Hard 2004, p. 89; Gantz, p. 449; Apollodorus, 1.6.1.
  75. ^ Hard 2004, p. 89; Gantz, p. 449; Salowey, p. 236; Apollodorus, 1.6.2. Compare with Pindar, Pythian 8.12–8, who instead says that Porphyrion is killed by an arrow from Apollo.
  76. PMG 239 (Page, p. 125) = Etymologicum Magnum
    772.49] (see Gantz, p. 49).
  77. ^ Gantz, p. 49; Hesiod, Theogony 824–8.
  78. ^ Fontenrose, p. 71; Hesiod, Theogony 836–8.
  79. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 839–68. According to Fowler, p. 27, the monster's easy defeat at the hands of Zeus is "in keeping with Hesiod's pervasive glorification of Zeus".
  80. FGrHist
    457 F8].
  81. ^ Fontenrose, p. 73; Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 356–64; Pindar, Olympian 8.16–7; for a discussion of Aeschylus's and Pindar's accounts, see Gantz, p. 49.
  82. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.3.
  83. ^ Gantz, p. 50; Fontenrose, p. 73.
  84. ^ Hard 2004, p. 84; Fontenrose, p. 73; Gantz, p. 50.
  85. ^ Hard 2004, p. 84; Fontenrose, p. 73.
  86. ^ Fontenrose, p. 73; Ogden, p. 42; Hard 2004, p. 84.
  87. ^ Hard 2004, p. 84–5; Fontenrose, p. 73–4.
  88. ^ Hard 2004, p. 85.
  89. ^ Ogden, p. 74–5; Fontenrose, pp. 74–5; Lane Fox, p. 287; Gantz, p. 50.
  90. ^ Gantz, p. 59; Hard 2004, p. 82; Homer, Iliad 1.395–410.
  91. ^ Gantz, p. 51; Hard 2004, p. 77; Hesiod, Theogony 886–900. Yasumura, p. 90 points out that the identity of the foretold son's father is not made clear by Hesiod, and suggests, drawing upon a version given by a scholiast on the Iliad (see below), that a possible interpretation would be that the Cyclops Brontes was the father.
  92. ^ Smith, s.v. Metis; Apollodorus, 1.3.6.
  93. ^ Potentially from the Melampodia (Hard 2004, p. 77).
  94. ^ Gantz, p. 51; Hard 2004, p. 77; Hesiod fr. 294 Most, pp. 390–3 [= fr. 343 Merkelbach-West, p. 171 = Chrysippus fr. 908 Arnim, p. 257 = Galen, On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato 3.8.11–4 (p. 226)].
  95. ^ Gantz, p. 51; Yasumura, p. 89; Scholia bT on Homer's Iliad, 8.39 (Yasumura, p. 89).
  96. ^ Hard 2004, p. 77. Compare with Gantz, p. 51, who sees the myth as a conflation of three separate elements: one in which Athena is born from Zeus's head, one in which Zeus consumes Metis so as to obtain her wisdom, and one in which he swallows her so as to avoid the threat of the prophesied son.
  97. ^ Hard 2004, p. 77–8; see also Yasumura, p. 90.
  98. ^ Gantz, p. 51; Hard 2004, p. 78; Hesiod, Theogony 901–6. Earlier, at 217, Hesiod instead calls the Moirai daughters of Nyx.
  99. ^ Gantz, p. 52; Hard 2004, p. 78; Pindar fr. 30 Race, pp. 236, 237 [= Clement of Alexandria, Stromata 5.14.137.1].
  100. ^ Gantz, p. 54; Hard 2004, p. 78; Hesiod, Theogony 907–11.
  101. ^ Hard 2004, p. 78; Hansen, p. 68; Hesiod, Theogony 912–4.
  102. ^ Gantz, p. 54; Hesiod, Theogony 53–62, 915–7.
  103. Homeric Hymn to Apollo (3), 89–123
    . The account given by the Homeric Hymn to Apollo differs from Hesiod's version in that Zeus and Hera are already married when Apollo and Artemis are born (Pirenne-Delforge and Pironti, p. 18).
  104. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 921.
  105. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 886–920 (Most, pp. 74–77); Caldwell, p. 11, table 14.
  106. ^
    Oceanid daughters of Oceanus and Tethys, at 358
    .
  107. ^ Of Zeus's children by his partners before Hera, Athena was the first to be conceived (889), but the last to be born. Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena "from his head" (924).
  108. ^ At 217 the Moirai are the daughters of Nyx.
  109. ^ Hard 2004, p. 78.
  110. ^ Hard 2004, p. 79; Hesiod, Theogony 921–3; so too Apollodorus, 1.3.1. In the Iliad, Eris is called the sister of Ares (4.440–1), and Parada, s.v. Eris, p. 72 places her as a daughter of Zeus and Hera.
  111. ^ Hard 2004, p. 79; Gantz, p. 74; Hesiod, Theogony 924–9; so too Apollodorus, 1.3.5.
  112. ^ Hard 2004, p. 79; Gantz, p. 74; Homer, Iliad 1.577–9, 14.293–6, 14.338, Odyssey 8.312; Scholia bT on Homer's Iliad, 14.296; see also Apollodorus, 1.3.5.
  113. ^ Gantz, p. 57; Pirenne-Delforge and Pironti, p. 24; Hard 2004, pp. 78, 136; Homer, Iliad 14.293–6. Gantz points out that, if in this version Cronus swallows his children as he does in the Theogony, the pair could not sleep with each other without their father's knowledge before Zeus overthrows Cronus, and so suggests that Homer may have possibly been following a version of the story in which only Cronus's sons are swallowed.
  114. ^ Gantz, p. 57; Scholia bT on Homer's Iliad, 14.296. Cf. Scholia A on Homer's Iliad, 1.609 (Dindorf 1875a, p. 69); see Pirenne-Delforge and Pironti, p. 20; Hard 2004, p. 136.
  115. ^ Hard 2004, p. 136; Callimachus, fr. 48 Harder, pp. 152, 153 [= Scholia A on Homer's Iliad, 1.609 (Dindorf 1875a, p. 69)]; see also Pirenne-Delforge and Pironti, p. 20.
  116. FGrHist
    33 F3]; Gantz, p. 58. The scholiast attributes the story to the work On the Cults of Hermione, by an Aristocles.
  117. BNJ, commentary on 33 F3; Pausanias, 2.17.4, 2.36.1
    .
  118. ^ According to Sandbach, Macris is another name for Euboea, who Plutarch calls Hera's nurse at Moralia 657 E (pp. 268–71) (Sandbach, p. 289, note b to fr. 157).
  119. FGrHist 388 F1 = Eusebius, Praeparatio evangelica 3.1.3 (Gifford 1903a, pp. 112–3; Gifford 1903b, p. 92
    )].
  120. Photius, Bibliotheca 190.47 (Harry, pp. 68–9; English translation
    ).
  121. ^ Stephanus of Byzantium s.v. Hermion (II pp. 160, 161).
  122. P. Oxy. 1011 fr. 1 (Grenfell and Hunt, pp. 24–6)]. Callimachus seems to refer to some form of liaison between Zeus and Hera while describing a Naxian premarital ritual; see Hard 2004, pp. 136–7; Gantz, p. 58. Cf. Scholia on Homer's Iliad
    , 14.296; for a discussion on the relation between the Callimachus fragment and the passage from the scholion, see Sistakou, p. 377.
  123. FGrHist 3 F16b [= Scholia on Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica 2.992 (Wendel, p. 317)
    ].
  124. FGrHist
    3 F16c].
  125. ^ Apollodorus, 2.5.11.
  126. ^ Hard 2004, p. 136; Diodorus Siculus, 5.72.4.
  127. Divine Institutes 1.17.1 (p. 98)
    .
  128. ^ Hard 2004, p. 137–8; Pirenne-Delforge and Pironti, p. 99; Pausanias, 9.3.1–2.
  129. FGrHist 388 F1 = Eusebius, Praeparatio evangelica 3.1.6 (Gifford 1903a, pp. 114–5; Gifford 1903b, p. 93
    )].
  130. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 921–9 (Most, pp. 76, 77); Caldwell, p. 12, table 14.
  131. ^ According to Hesiod, Hera produces Hephaestus on her own, without a father (Theogony 927–9). In the Iliad and the Odyssey, however, he is the son of Zeus and Hera; see Gantz, p. 74; Homer, Iliad 1.577–9, 14.293–6, 14.338, Odyssey 8.312.
  132. ^ Grimal, s.v. Zeus, p. 468 calls his affairs "countless".
  133. ^ Hard 2004, p. 337; Gantz, p. 210; Scholia Ab on Homer's Iliad, 12.292 (Dindorf 1875a, pp. 427–8) [= Hesiod fr. 89 Most, pp. 172–5 = Merkelbach-West fr. 140, p. 68] [= Bacchylides fr. 10 Campbell, pp. 262, 263].
  134. ^ Gantz, pp. 320–1; Hard 2004, p. 439; Euripides, Helen 16–21 (pp. 14, 15).
  135. ^ Hard 2004, p. 303; Euripides fr. 178 Nauck, pp. 410–2.
  136. ^ Hard 2004, p. 541; Gantz, p. 726; Ovid, Metamorphoses 2.409–530; see also Amphis apud Hyginus, De astronomia 2.1.2. According to Apollodorus, 3.8.2 he took the form "as some say, of Artemis, or, as others say, of Apollo".
  137. FGrHist 3 F13c [= Scholia on Homer's Iliad, 14.323 (Dindorf 1875b, p. 62)
    ].
  138. FGrHist 3 F10 [= Scholia on Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica, 4.1091 (Wendel, p. 305)
    ].
  139. ^ Gantz, p. 220; Ovid, Metamorphoses 6.113. In contrast, Nonnus, Dionysiaca 7.122 (pp. 252, 253), 7.210–4 (pp. 260, 261) states that he takes the form of an eagle.
  140. ^ Gantz, p. 61; Hard 2004, p. 138.
  141. ^ Gantz, p. 199; Hard 2004, p. 231; Apollodorus, 2.1.3.
  142. ^ Hard 2004, pp. 170–1; Gantz, p. 476.
  143. ^ Gantz, p. 726.
  144. ^ Grimal, s.v. Hera, p. 192; Tripp, s.v. Hera, p. 274.
  145. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 4.14.4.
  146. ^ Gantz, p. 220.
  147. ^ Hard 2004, p. 247; Apollodorus, 2.4.8.
  148. Brill's New Pauly, s.v. Antiope; Scholia on Apollonius of Rhodes
    , 4.1090.
  149. Brill's New Pauly, s.v. Callisto; Grimal, s.v. Callisto, p. 86; Apollodorus, 3.8.2 (Artemis or Apollo); Ovid, Metamorphoses 2.401–530; Hyginus, De astronomia 2.1.2
    .
  150. ^ Hard 2004, p. 238
  151. ^ Hard 2004, p. 337; Lane Fox, p. 199.
  152. ^ Hard 2004, p. 522; Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.155–6; Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods 10 (4).
  153. ^ Hard 2004, p. 137
  154. ^ Hard 2004, p. 439; Euripides, Helen 16–22.
  155. Deipnosophists
    8.334b–d].
  156. ^ Hard 2004, p.244; Hesiod, Theogony 943.
  157. ^ Hansen, p. 68; Hard 2004, p. 78; Hesiod, Theogony 912.
  158. ^ Hard 2004, p. 78; Hesiod, Theogony 901–911; Hansen, p. 68.
  159. Orphic Hymn to the Graces (60), 1–3 (Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 49
    ).
  160. ^ Cornutus, Compendium Theologiae Graecae, 15 (Torres, pp. 15–6).
  161. ^ Hard 2004, p. 79; Hesiod, Theogony 921.
  162. ^ Hard 2004, p. 78; Hesiod, Theogony 912–920; Morford, p. 211.
  163. ^ Hard 2004, p. 80; Hesiod, Theogony 938.
  164. ^ Hard 2004, p. 77; Hesiod, Theogony 886–900.
  165. ^ Hard 2004, p. 78; Hesiod, Theogony 53–62; Gantz, p. 54.
  166. ^ Hard 2004, p. 80; Hesiod, Theogony 940.
  167. ^ a b Hesiod, Theogony 901–905; Gantz, p. 52; Hard 2004, p. 78.
  168. ^ Homer, Iliad 5.370; Apollodorus, 1.3.1
  169. ^ Homer, Iliad 14.319–20; Smith, s.v. Perseus (1).
  170. ^ Homer, Iliad 14.317–18; Smith, s.v. Peirithous.
  171. Brill's New Pauly, s.v. Minos; Homer, Iliad 14.32–33; Hesiod, Catalogue of Women fr. 89 Most, pp. 172–5
    [= fr. 140 Merkelbach-West, p. 68].
  172. ^ Homer, Iliad 14.32–33; Hesiod, Catalogue of Women fr. 89 Most, pp. 172–5 [= fr. 140 Merkelbach-West, p. 68]; Gantz, p. 210; Smith, s.v. Rhadamanthus.
  173. Brill's New Pauly, s.v. Sarpedon (1); Hesiod, Catalogue of Women fr. 89 Most, pp. 172–5
    [= fr. 140 Merkelbach-West, p. 68].
  174. Brill's New Pauly s.v. Amphion
    ; Grimal, s.v. Amphion, p. 38.
  175. RE, s.v. Angelos 1; Sophron apud Scholia on Theocritus
    , Idylls 2.12.
  176. Jove and Juno as cited in Hyginus, Fabulae Preface
    .
  177. ^ Parada, s.v. Eris, p. 72. Homer, Iliad 4.440–1 calls Eris the sister of Ares, who is the son of Zeus and Hera in the Iliad.
  178. ^ Hard 2004, p. 79, 141; Gantz, p. 74; Homer, Iliad 1.577–9, 14.293–6, 14.338, Odyssey 8.312; Scholia bT on Homer's Iliad, 14.296.
  179. ^ Homer, Iliad 6.191–199; Hard 2004, p. 349; Smith, s.v. Sarpe'don (2).
  180. ^ Gantz, pp. 318–9. Helen is called the daughter of Zeus in Homer, Iliad 3.199, 3.418, 3.426, Odyssey 4.184, 4.219, 23.218, and she has the same mother (Leda) as Castor and Pollux in Iliad 3.236–8.
  181. ^ Cypria, fr. 10 West, pp. 88–91; Hard 2004, p. 438.
  182. ^ Gantz, p. 167; Hesiod, Catalogue of Women fr. 2 Most, pp. 42–5 [= fr. 5 Merkelbach-West, pp. 5–6 = Ioannes Lydus, De Mensibus 1.13].
  183. ^ Parada, s.vv. Hellen (1), p. 86, Pyrrha (1), p. 159; Apollodorus, 1.7.2; Hesiod, Catalogue of Women fr. 5 Most, pp. 46, 47 [= Scholia on Homer's Odyssey 10.2]; West 1985, pp. 51, 53, 56, 173, table 1.
  184. Constantine Porphyrogenitus
    , De Thematibus, 2].
  185. ^ Pindar, Olympian 12.1–2; Gantz, p. 151.
  186. ^ Herodotus, Histories 4.5.1.
  187. ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica s.v. Torrhēbos, citing Hellanicus and Nicolaus
  188. FGrHist 3 F55 [= Scholia on Apollonius of Rhodes, 1.760–2b (Wendel, p. 65
    )].
  189. ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum 3.59.
  190. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 5.55.5
  191. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 5.48.1; Smith, s.v. Saon.
  192. ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum 3.42.
  193. ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 155
  194. ^ Strabo, Geographica 10.3.19
  195. ^ Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 6.48ff., 6.651ff
  196. ^ Hyginus Fabulae 82; Antoninus Liberalis, 36; Pausanias, 2.22.3; Gantz, p. 536; Hard 2004, p. 502.
  197. ^ Apollodorus, 3.12.6; Grimal, s.v. Asopus, p. 63; Smith, s.v. Asopus.
  198. ^ Apollodorus, 1.4.1; Hard 2004, p. 216.
  199. ^ Apollodorus, 3.8.2; Pausanias, 8.3.6; Hard 2004, p. 540; Gantz, pp. 725–726.
  200. Brill's New Pauly, s.v. Calyce (1); Smith, s.v. Endymion; Apollodorus, 1.7.5
    .
  201. ^ Apollodorus, 2.1.1; Gantz, p. 198.
  202. ^ a b Apollodorus, 3.12.1; Hard 2004, 521.
  203. ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 3.195.
  204. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 5.48.2.
  205. ^ Apollodorus, 3.12.6; Hard 2004, p. 530–531.
  206. FGrHist 299 F5 [= Scholia on Pindar
    's Olympian 9.104a].
  207. ^ Pausanias, 2.30.3; March, s.v. Britomartis, p. 88; Smith, s.v. Britomartis.
  208. ^ Gantz, pp. 26, 40; Musaeus fr. 16 Diels, p. 183; Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 3.467
  209. ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum 3.42; Athenaeus, Deipnosophists 9.392e (pp. 320, 321).
  210. ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s.v. Akragantes; Smith, s.v. Acragas.
  211. ^ Scholiast on Pindar, Pythian Odes 3.177; Hesychius
  212. FGrHist
    1753 F1b.
  213. ^ Smith, s.v. Agdistis; Pausanias, 7.17.10. Agdistis springs from the earth in a place where Zeus's seed landed.
  214. Roman Antiquities 1.27.1
    ; Grimal, s.v. Manes, p. 271.
  215. ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 14.193.
  216. Orphic Hymn to Melinoë (71), 3–4 (Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 57)
    .
  217. ^ Grimal, s.v. Zagreus, p. 466; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 6.155.
  218. ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum 3.21-23.
  219. ^ Hard 2004, p. 46; Keightley, p. 55; Alcman fr. 57 Campbell, pp. 434, 435.
  220. ^ Cook 1914, p. 456; Smith, s.v. Selene.
  221. ^ Homeric Hymn to Selene (32), 15–16; Hyginus, Fabulae Preface; Hard 2004, p. 46; Grimal, s.v. Selene, p. 415.
  222. ^ Apollodorus, 1.1.3.
  223. ^ West 1983, p. 73; Orphic fr. 58 Kern [= Athenagoras, Legatio Pro Christianis 20.2]; Meisner, p. 134.
  224. Servius, On Aeneid, 9.581–4
    .
  225. ^ Grimal, s.v. Myrmidon, p. 299; Hard 2004, p. 533
  226. ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s.v. Krētē.
  227. ^ Grimal, s.v. Epaphus; Apollodorus, 2.1.3.
  228. ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 32.70
  229. ^ Antoninus Liberalis, 13.
  230. ^ Pausanias, 3.1.2.
  231. FGrHist
    334 F75].
  232. ^ Pausanias, 1.40.1.
  233. ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s.v. Ōlenos.
  234. ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s.v. Pisidia; Grimal, s.v. Solymus, p. 424.
  235. ^ Smith, s.v. Orchomenus (3).
  236. ^ Smith, s.v. Agamedes.
  237. Photius, Bibliotheca 190.47 (English translation
    ).
  238. ^ Pausanias, 10.12.1; Smith, s.v. Lamia (1).
  239. ^ Eustathius ad Homer, p. 1688
  240. Servius, Commentary on Virgil's Aeneid 1. 242
  241. ^ Apollodorus, 1.7.2; Pausanias, 5.1.3; Hyginus, Fabulae 155.
  242. ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 155.
  243. ^ Pindar, Olympian Ode 9.58.
  244. ^
    Tzetzes on Lycophron, 1206 (pp. 957–962).[non-primary source needed
    ]
  245. John Lydus
    , De mensibus 4.67.
  246. ^ Homer, Iliad 19.91.
  247. ^ "Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, book 2, line 887". www.perseus.tufts.edu.
  248. Orphic Hymn to Dionysus (30), 6–7 (Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 27)
  249. ^ Homer, Iliad 9.502; Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica 10.301 (pp. 440, 441); Smith, s.v. Litae.
  250. Valer. Flacc.
    , Argonautica 5.205
  251. ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica s.v. Tainaros
  252. ^ Pausanias, 2.1.1.
  253. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 5.81.4
  254. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 507-565
  255. ^ Hesiod, Works and Days 60–105.
  256. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.216–1.348
  257. ISBN 9780195156690
    . Retrieved 14 February 2019.
  258. ^ "The Gods in the Iliad". department.monm.edu. Archived from the original on 19 December 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  259. ^ Homer (1990). The Iliad. South Africa: Penguin Classics.
  260. ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 146.
  261. ^ Meisner, pp. 1, 5
  262. ^ West 1983, pp. 73–74; Meisner, p. 134; Orphic frr. 58 [= Athenagoras, Legatio Pro Christianis 20.2] 153 Kern.
  263. ^ Apollodorus, 3.76.
  264. ^ Apollodorus, 3.13.5.
  265. ^ Pindar, Isthmian odes 8.25
  266. ^ Apollodorus, 3.10.4
  267. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 4.71.2
  268. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 285
  269. ^ Hard 2004, p. 554; Apollodorus, Epitome 1.20
  270. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.747–2.400; Hyginus, De astronomia 2.42.2; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 38.142–435
  271. ^ Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods Zeus and the Sun
  272. Tivoli and donated to the British Museum by John Thomas Barber Beaumont
    in 1836. BM 1516. (British Museum, A Catalogue of Sculpture in the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 1904).
  273. ^ Homer, Iliad 1.202, 2.157, 2.375; Pindar, Isthmian Odes 4.99; Hyginus, De astronomia 2.13.7.
  274. ^ Spanh. ad Callim. hymn. in Jov, 49
  275. ^ Schmitz, Leonhard (1867). "Aegiduchos". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. I. Boston. p. 26. Archived from the original on 11 February 2009. Retrieved 19 October 2007.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  276. ISBN 978-0-307-42518-8
    .
  277. ^ LIMC, s.v. Zeus, p. 342.
  278. ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Gaza" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.; Johannes Hahn: Gewalt und religiöser Konflikt; The Holy Land and the Bible
  279. ^ Durant, The Life of Greece (The Story of Civilization Part II, New York: Simon & Schuster) 1939:23.
  280. ^ Rodney Castleden, Minoans: Life in Bronze-Age Crete, "The Minoan belief-system" (Routledge) 1990:125
  281. ^ Pointed out by Bernard Clive Dietrich, The Origins of Greek Religion (de Gruyter) 1973:15.
  282. ^ A.B. Cook, Zeus Cambridge University Press, 1914, I, figs 397, 398.
  283. ^ Dietrich 1973, noting Martin P. Nilsson, Minoan-Mycenaean Religion, and Its Survival in Greek Religion 1950:551 and notes.
  284. Dionysos
    — so not all the young male deities we see depicted in Minoan works of art are necessarily Velchanos" (Castleden) 1990:125
  285. ^ Richard Wyatt Hutchinson, Prehistoric Crete, (Harmondsworth: Penguin) 1968:204, mentions that there is no classical reference to the death of Zeus (noted by Dietrich 1973:16 note 78).
  286. ^ "This annually reborn god of vegetation also experienced the other parts of the vegetation cycle: holy marriage and annual death when he was thought to disappear from the earth" (Dietrich 1973:15).
  287. ^ In the founding myth of Lycaon's banquet for the gods that included the flesh of a human sacrifice, perhaps one of his sons, Nyctimus or Arcas. Zeus overturned the table and struck the house of Lyceus with a thunderbolt; his patronage at the Lykaia can have been little more than a formula.
  288. ^ A morphological connection to lyke "brightness" may be merely fortuitous.
  289. ^ Modern archaeologists have found no trace of human remains among the sacrificial detritus, Walter Burkert, "Lykaia and Lykaion", Homo Necans, tr. by Peter Bing (University of California) 1983, p. 90.
  290. ^ Pausanias, 8.38.
  291. ^ Republic 565d-e
  292. ^ A. B. Cook (1914), Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion, Vol. I, p.63, Cambridge University Press
  293. ^ Strabo, Geographica 14.1.42.
  294. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 4.33.2
  295. ^ A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), Hecatomphonia
  296. ^ Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898), Hecatomphonia
  297. ^ Perseus Encyclopedia, Hecatomphonia
  298. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 4.19.3
  299. ^ Schol. ad Pind. Ol. vi. 162
  300. ^ Hesiod, according to a scholium on Apollonius of Rhodes. Argonautika, ii. 297
  301. ^ Odyssey 14.326-7
  302. ^ Pausanias, 3.18.
  303. ^ "In the art of Gandhara Zeus became the inseparable companion of the Buddha as Vajrapani." in Freedom, Progress, and Society, K. Satchidananda Murty, R. Balasubramanian, Sibajiban Bhattacharyya, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1986, p. 97
  304. ^ 2 Maccabees 6:2
  305. ^ David Syme Russel. Daniel. (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1981) 191.
  306. ^ Devdutt Pattanaik's Olympus: An Indian Retelling of Greek Myths
  307. JSTOR 3270454
  308. ^ Ljuba Merlina Bortolani, Magical Hymns from Roman Egypt: A Study of Greek and Egyptian Traditions of Divinity, Cambridge University Press, 13 October 2016
  309. ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 17 April 2018. Retrieved 7 May 2017.
  310. ^ Cook, p. 196
  311. ^ Euripides, Medea 1258; The Play of Texts and Fragments: Essays in Honour of Martin Cropp by J. Robert C. Cousland, James, 2009, p. 161
  312. ^ Cook, pp 186–187
  313. ^ a b Cook, pp 188–189
  314. ^ Cook, p. 190
  315. ^ Cook, p. 193
  316. ^ Cook, p. 194
  317. ^ Karl Kerenyi, The Gods of the Greeks 1951:110.
  318. ^ In Fourth Tractate 'Problems of the Soul' The Demiurge is identified as Zeus.10. "When under the name of Zeus we are considering the Demiurge we must leave out all notions of stage and progress, and recognize one unchanging and timeless life."
  319. ^ "Online Bible Study Tools – Library of Resources". biblestudytools.com.
  320. ^ The International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia, edited by J. Orr, 1960, Vol. III, p. 1944.
  321. ^ "The Second Book of the Maccabees < Deuterocanonical Books (Deuterocanon) | St-Takla.org". st-takla.org.
  322. ^ This chart is based upon Hesiod's Theogony, unless otherwise noted.
  323. ^ According to Homer, Iliad 1.570–579, 14.338, Odyssey 8.312, Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p. 74.
  324. ^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 927–929, Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74.
  325. ^ According to Hesiod's Theogony 886–890, of Zeus' children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena "from his head", see Gantz, pp. 51–52, 83–84.
  326. ^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 183–200, Aphrodite was born from Uranus' severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99–100.
  327. ^ According to Homer, Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (Iliad 3.374, 20.105; Odyssey 8.308, 320) and Dione (Iliad 5.370–71), see Gantz, pp. 99–100.

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