Second Bulgarian Empire

Bulgarian Empire Ц︢рьство блъгарское
1185–1422
Top: Flag according to Dulcert's portolan (c. 1325) Bottom: Flag according to Soler's portolan (c. 1380) Shield of the Tsar's Watch in Tarnovo, end of 14th century
Peter IV (first)
• 1397–1422	Constantine II of Bulgaria (last)
Historical era	Middle Ages
• Reestablishment	1185
• Fall under Ottoman rule	1422
Area
1230[1]	293,000 km2 (113,000 sq mi)
Preceded by Succeeded by First Bulgarian Empire Bulgaria (theme) Ottoman Bulgaria Tsardom of Vidin Despotate of Dobruja Despotate of Lovech Wallachia
Today part of	Albania Bulgaria Greece Kosovo North Macedonia Romania Serbia Turkey

The Second Bulgarian Empire (

Nomenclature

Part of a series on the
History of Bulgaria
Odrysian kingdom 460 BC – 46 AD Roman times 46–681 Dark Ages c. 6th–7th cent. Old Great Bulgaria 7th cent., 632–668 First Bulgarian Empire 681–1018 Christianization Golden Age 896–927 Cometopuli dynasty 968–1018 Byzantine Bulgaria 1018–1185 Second Bulgarian Empire 1185–1396 Second Golden Age 1230–1241 Mongol invasion 1274–1300 Darman and Kudelin 1273–1291 Recovery and expansion 1300–1371 Fragmentation and fall 1371–1396 Vidin Dobruja Lovech Ottoman Bulgaria 1396–1878 Resistance after 1413 National Revival 1762–1878 Early Late Establishment of the Bulgarian Exarchate 1870 April Uprising 1876 Liberation War 1877–1878 Third Bulgarian State 1878–present Serbo-Bulgarian War 1885 Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising 1903 Balkan Wars 1912–1913 World War I 1915–1918 World War II 1941–1945 Communist era 1946–1990 Transition era since 1990
List of monarchs Military history Struggle for Macedonia 1893–1944
Main category Bulgaria portal
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The name most frequently used for the empire by contemporaries was Bulgaria, as the state called itself.^[4] During Kaloyan's reign, the state was sometimes known as being of both Bulgarians and Vlachs. Pope Innocent III and other foreigners such as the Latin Emperor Henry mentioned the state as Bulgaria and the Bulgarian Empire in official letters.^[14][15]

In modern historiography, the state is called the Second Bulgarian Empire, Second Bulgarian Tsardom, or the Second Bulgarian Kingdom to distinguish it from the First Bulgarian Empire.^[16] An alternative name used in connection with the pre-mid 13th century period is the Empire of Vlachs and Bulgarians;^[17] variant names include the Vlach–Bulgarian Empire, the Bulgarian–Wallachian Empire,^[18] or the Romanian–Bulgarian Empire; the latter name was used exclusively in Romanian historiography.^[19]

However, Arabic chronicles from the 13th century had used only the name of Wallachia instead of Bulgaria and gave the Arabic coordinates of Wallachia and specified that Walachia was named "al-Awalak" and the dwellers "ulaqut" or "ulagh".^[20]

In 1018, when the Byzantine emperor

The disastrous rule of the last Komnenian emperor

From Moesia, the Bulgarians launched attacks in northern Thrace while the Byzantine army was fighting with the Normans, who had attacked Byzantine possessions in the Western Balkans and sacked Thessalonica, the Empire's second largest city. The Byzantines reacted in mid-1186, when Isaac II organized a campaign to crush the rebellion before it spread further. The Bulgarians had secured the passes but the Byzantine army found its way across the mountains due to a solar eclipse.^[4][32] Once the Byzantines reached the plains, the rebels did not risk a confrontation with the larger, better-organized force. Peter IV pretended he was willing to submit, while Asen travelled to the north of the Danube to raise an army. Contented, the Byzantine emperor burned the Bulgarians' crops and returned to Constantinople. Soon after, Asen crossed back over the Danube with Cuman reinforcements, declaring he would continue the struggle until all Bulgarian lands were liberated.^[32] A new Byzantine army was assembled under the command of the emperor's uncle John Doukas Angelos, but as Isaac II feared he would be overthrown, Doukas was replaced by John Kantakouzenos, a blind man ineligible for the throne. The Bulgarians attacked Kantakouzenos' camp during the night, killing a large number of soldiers.^[33][34] In mid-1186, another army under the general Alexios Branas was sent in. However, instead of fighting the rebels, Branas turned to Constantinople to claim the throne for himself; he was murdered shortly afterwards.^[35] Taking advantage of the chaos, the Bulgarians raided northern Thrace, looting the countryside before Byzantine forces could counterattack. On one occasion, the two armies confronted each other near the fortress of Lardea in an indecisive battle; the Bulgarians kept their plunder and retreated untroubled to the north of the Balkan mountains.^[36]

In the late 1186, Isaac II launched his second campaign against Bulgaria. His army was forced to spend the winter in

In the next four years, the focus of the war shifted to the south of the Balkan mountains. Ivan Asen's strategy of swiftly striking in different locations paid off, and he soon took control of the important cities Sofia and Niš to the south-west, clearing the way to Macedonia.^[42] In 1194, the Byzantines gathered a huge force composed of the eastern and western armies, but were defeated at the Battle of Arcadiopolis. Unable to resist, Isaac II tried to ally with the Hungarian king Béla III and make a joint attack against Bulgaria, but was deposed and blinded by his brother Alexios III Angelos.^[43] The Byzantines tried to negotiate peace but Ivan Asen demanded the return of all Bulgarian lands and the war continued. In 1196, the Byzantine army was again defeated at Serres, far to the south. Upon his return to Tarnovo, Ivan Asen was murdered by his cousin Ivanko allegedly in a plot inspired by Constantinople.^[44] Peter IV besieged Tarnovo and Ivanko fled to the Byzantine Empire, where he was made governor of Philippopolis. Peter IV was murdered less than a year after his brother's death.^[45]

The throne was succeeded by

Kaloyan knew the Byzantines would never recognize his imperial title; he began negotiations with Pope Innocent III. He based the claims on his predecessors in the First Bulgarian Empire; Simeon I, Peter I, and Samuel.^[49] The Pope was willing to recognize Kaloyan as king on the condition the Bulgarian Church would submit to Rome. After lengthy negotiations in which both acted diplomatically but without changing their positions, Kaloyan was crowned king in late 1204. Archbishop Basil was proclaimed Primate. Kaloyan had no intention of submitting to that decision; he sent the Pope a letter expressing his gratitude for the Imperial title he had received and the elevation of the Bulgarian Church to a Patriarchate. Eventually the Papacy tacitly accepted the Bulgarian position regarding the Imperial title.^[50][51][52] The union between Bulgaria and Rome remained strictly official; the Bulgarians did not change their Orthodox rites and traditions.^[52]

Several months before Kaloyan's coronation, the leaders of the

As a result of the growing discontent with his policy, Boril was overthrown in 1218 by

In 1231, when John of Brienne arrived in Constantinople, Ivan Asen II allied with the Nicaean Empire against the Latins. After the Nicaeans recognized the Bulgarian Patriarchate in 1235, Ivan Asen II broke his union with the Papacy. The joint campaign against the Latins was successful, but they failed to capture Constantinople. With John of Brienne's death two years later, Ivan Asen II—who could have again become a regent of Baldwin II—decided to end his cooperation with Nicaea.^[70] His decision was further based on the assumption that after an allied success, Constantinople would again have become the centre of a restored Byzantine Empire, with the Nicaean dynasty as a ruling house.^[71] The Bulgarian–Latin cooperation was short-lived; Ivan Asen II remained at peace with his southern neighbours until the end of his reign. Shortly before his death in 1241, Ivan Asen II defeated part of the Mongol army returning to the east after a devastating attack on Poland and Hungary.^[72]

The new emperor had to deal with multiple foreign threats. In 1257, the Latins attacked and seized Messembria but could not hold the town. More serious was the situation to the north-west, where the Hungarians supported Rostislav, the self-proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria in Vidin. In 1260, Constantine Tikh recovered Vidin and occupied the Severin Banat, but the next year a Hungarian counterattack forced the Bulgarians to retreat to Tarnovo, restoring Vidin to Rostislav.^[80] The city was soon controlled by the Bulgarian noble Jacob Svetoslav, but by 1266 he also styled himself emperor.^[81] The restoration of the Byzantine Empire under the ambitious Michael VIII Palaiologos further worsened Bulgaria's situation. A major Byzantine invasion in 1263 led to the loss of the coastal towns Messembria and Anchialus, and several cities in Thrace—including Philippopolis.^[82] Unable to effectively resist, Constantine Tikh organized a joint Bulgarian–Mongol campaign, but after ravaging Thrace the Mongols returned north of the Danube.^[83] The emperor became crippled after a hunting accident in the early 1260s, and fell under the influence of his wife Maria Palaiologina, whose constant intrigues fueled divisions among the nobility.^[84]

Constant Mongol raids, economic difficulties, and the emperor's illness led to a

In 1300,

The attempts of Ivan Alexander to fight off the Ottomans in the late 1340s and early 1350s failed after two defeats in which his eldest son and successor

I was in three regions, and all three were called Bulgaria. The first Bulgaria extends there, where you pass from Hungary through the

Iron Gate. Its capital is called Vidin. The other Bulgaria lies opposite Wallachia, and its capital is called Tarnovo. The third Bulgaria is there, where the Danube flows into the sea. Its capital is called Kaliakra.^[116]

On 26 September 1371, the Ottomans defeated a large Christian army led by the Serbian brothers

Despite strong resistance, the Ottomans seized a number of important towns and fortresses in 1388, and five years later they captured Tarnovo after a three-month siege.^[123][124] Ivan Shishman died in 1395 when the Ottomans, led by Bayezid I, took his last fortress Nikopol.^[125] In 1396, Ivan Sratsimir joined the Crusade of the Hungarian king Sigismund, but after the Christian army was defeated in the Battle of Nicopolis the Ottomans immediately marched on Vidin and seized it, bringing an end to the medieval Bulgarian state.^[126][127] Resistance continued under Constantine and Fruzhin until 1422. The former was referred to by king Sigismund as the "distinguished Constantine, glorious Emperor of Bulgaria".^[128][129]

The Second Bulgarian Empire was a hereditary monarchy^[e] ruled by a Tsar—the Bulgarian word for Emperor that originated in the 10th century during the First Bulgarian Empire. The monarchs of Bulgaria styled themselves, "In Christ the Lord Faithful Emperor and Autocrat of all Bulgarians" or variations, sometimes including "...and Romans, Greeks, or Vlachs".^[130] The term all Bulgarians was added in the 14th century following the loss of many Bulgarian-populated territories and signified that the monarch in Tarnovo was the emperor of all Bulgarian people, even those who lived beyond the country's political borders.^[130]

The Emperor held supreme power over secular and religious affairs in an autocracy; his personal abilities played an important role in the country's well-being.^[131] When the monarch was an infant, the government was headed by a regency that included the mother-empress, the Patriarch, and senior members of the ruling dynasty.^[132] As the processes of feudal fragmentation accelerated in the 14th century, it became customary for the monarch's sons to receive imperial titles during their father's lifetime; sons were styled co-rulers or junior emperors.^[133]

Unlike the First Empire, the administration during the Second Bulgarian Empire was heavily influenced by the

The capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire was Tarnovo, which was also the centre of its own administrative unit under the direct authority of the emperor.

During the Second Empire, Bulgarian society was divided into three social classes: clergy, nobility, and peasantry. The nobility included the aristocracy: the bolyars, whose origin was the older Bulgarian boilas from the First Empire, the judges, and the "whole army".^[141] The bolyars were subdivided into greater and lesser bolyars. The former possessed large estates, which at times included tens and even hundreds of villages, and held high administrative and military posts.^[142] The peasants formed the bulk of the third class and were subordinated either under the central authorities or under local feudal lords. With time, the number of the latter increased as a result of the process of feudalization of Bulgaria.^[143] The main groups of peasants were paritsi and otrotsi. Both could own land but only the paritsi could inherit property; the latter could not, since it was provided by the feudal lords.^[144]

The emperor of the Second Bulgarian Empire was commander-in-chief of its army; the second-in-command was the velik (great) voivoda. The detachments of the army were led by a

]

The Bulgarian army used various military tactics, relying on the experience of the soldiers and the peculiarities of the terrain. The Balkan mountains played a significant role in the military strategy and facilitated the country's defence against the strong Byzantine army. During wartime, the Bulgarians would send light cavalry to devastate the enemy lands on a broad front, pillaging villages and small towns, burning the crops, and taking people and cattle. The Bulgarian army was very mobile—for instance for four days before the Battle of Klokotnitsa, it covered a distance three times longer than the Epirote army covered in a week; in 1332, it travelled 230 km (140 miles) in five days.^[147]

Inside the fortress [Sofia] there is a large and elite army, its soldiers are heavily built, moustached and look war-hardened, but are used to consume wine and rakia—in a word, jolly fellows.^[148]

Ottoman commander Lala Shahin on the garrison of Sofia.

Bulgaria maintained extensive lines of fortresses to protect the country, with the capital Tarnovo in the centre. To the north were lines along both banks of the

Arda. To the west, a line ran along the valley of the river South Morava.^[149]

During the Second Empire, foreign and mercenary soldiers became an important part of the Bulgarian army and its tactics. Since the beginning of the rebellion of Asen and Peter, the light, mobile Cuman cavalry was used effectively against the Byzantines and later the Crusaders. Kaloyan used 14,000 cavalrymen in the Battle of Adrianople.[146] The Cuman leaders entered the ranks of the Bulgarian nobility; some of them received high military or administrative posts in the state.^[150] In the 14th century, the Bulgarian army increasingly relied on foreign mercenaries, which included Western knights, Mongols, Ossetians, or Wallachians. Both Michael III Shishman and Ivan Alexander had a 3,000-strong Mongol cavalry detachment in their armies.^[147] In the 1350s, emperor Ivan Alexander hired Ottoman bands, as did the Byzantine Emperor. Russians were also hired as mercenaries.^[151]

Economy

See also: Medieval Bulgarian coinage

The economy of the Second Bulgarian Empire was based on agriculture, mining, traditional crafts, and trade. Agriculture and livestock breeding remained the mainstays of the Bulgarian economy between the 12th and 14th centuries. Moesia,

apiculture were well developed. Honey and wax from Zagore were the best-quality bee products in the Byzantine markets and were highly praised.^[157] The forests produced wood for cutting (бранища); there were also fenced forests (забели), in which wood-cutting was banned.^[158]

The increase in the number of towns gave strong impetus to handicrafts, metallurgy, and mining. Processing of crops was traditional; products included bread, cheese, butter, and wine. Salt was extracted from the lagoon near Anchialus.^[159] Leathermaking, shoemaking, carpentry, and weaving were prominent crafts. Varna was renowned for the processing of fox fur, which was used for production of luxurious clothes.^[160] According to Western European sources, there was an abundance of silk in Bulgaria. The Picardian knight Robert de Clari said that in the dowry of the Bulgarian princess Maria, " ... there was not a single horse that was not covered in red silk fabric, which was so long that dragged for seven or eight steps after each horse. And despite they travelled through mud and bad roads, none of the silk fabrics was torn—everything was preserved in grace and nobility."^[161] There were blacksmiths, ironmongers, and engineers who developed catapults, battering rams, and other siege equipment, which was extensively used in the beginning of the 13th century.^[162] Metalworking was developed in western Bulgaria—Chiprovtsi, Velbazhd, and Sofia, as well in Tarnovo and Messembria to the east.^[163]

Monetary circulation and minting steadily increased throughout the period of the Second Bulgarian Empire, reaching their climax during the reign of Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria (reigned 1331–1371). Along with his recognition by the Pope, emperor Kaloyan (r. 1197–1207) acquired the right to mint coins. Well-organized mints and engraving workshops were set up in the mid-13th century, producing copper, billon, and silver coinage.^[164][165] The reform was initiated by Constantine Tikh Asen (r. 1257–1277) and led to a stabilization of the monetary market in Bulgaria. The Uprising of Ivaylo and the pillage raids of the Mongols in the late 13th century destabilized the coinage, resulting in a tenfold decrease of minting activities.^[166] With the stabilization of the empire since 1300, Bulgarian monarchs issued an increased number of coins, including silver ones, but were able to secure the market with domestic coins after the 1330s.^[167] The erosion of the central authorities on the eve of the Ottoman invasion gave rise to primitive, anonymous, and crudely-forged counterfeit coins.^[168] Along with the Bulgarian coinage, coins from the Byzantine Empire, Latin Empire, Venice, Serbia, the Golden Horde, and the small Balkan principalities were widely used. Due to the increase of production, there was a tendency to limit the circulation of foreign coins by the second half of the 14th century.^[169] Coins were minted by some independent or semi-independent Bulgarian lords, such as Jacob Svetoslav and Dobrotitsa.^[170]

Religion

Religious policy

Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God

in Tarnovo was the seat of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church during the Second Empire. It was part of a larger complex which accommodated the Patriarch.

Following the refoundation of Bulgaria, the recognition of the imperial title of the monarch and the restoration of the Bulgarian Patriarchate became the priority of the Bulgarian foreign policy. The continuous state of war against the Byzantine empire urged Bulgarian rulers to turn to the Papacy. In his correspondence with Pope Innocent III, Kaloyan (r. 1197–1207) demanded imperial title and a Patriarchate, basing his claims on the heritage of the First Bulgarian Empire. In return, Kaloyan promised to accept Papal suzerainty over the Bulgarian Church.

Roman Catholicism. The union with Rome lasted until 1235 and did not affect the Bulgarian church, which continued its practices of Eastern Orthodox canons and rites.^[52]

The ambition of Bulgaria to become the religious centre of the Orthodox world had a prominent place in the Second Empire's state doctrine. After the fall of Constantinople to the knights of the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Tarnovo became for a time the main centre of Orthodoxy.

Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Byzantine emperor for their apparent willingness to make concessions at the Second Council of Lyon in 1272–74. Patriarch Ignatius was called "pillar of Orthodoxy".^[177] Envoys were sent to the Patriarch of Jerusalem to negotiate an anti-Byzantine alliance, which included the other two Eastern Patriarchs, but the mission achieved nothing.^[178][179]

Disputes with the Patriarchate of Constantinople over the legitimacy of the Bulgarian Patriarchate intensified in the 14th century. In 1355, the Ecumenical patriarch

Callistus I tried to assert his supremacy over the Bulgarian church and claimed that under the provisions of the Council of Lampsacus it remained subordinated and had to pay annual tribute to Constantinople. These claims were not supported by authentic documents and the Bulgarian religious authorities ignored them.^[180]

The structure of the Bulgarian Patriarchate followed the traditions of the First Empire. The head of the Church was the Patriarch of Bulgaria, who was a member of the State Council (Sinklit) and was at times a regent.

Messembria, Braničevo, Belgrade, Niš, and Velbazhd; and the sees of Tarnovo and Ohrid.^[182][181]

Hesychasm

Main article: Hesychasm

Hesychasm (from Greek "stillness, rest, quiet, silence") is an eremitic tradition of prayer in the Eastern Orthodox Church that flourished in the Balkans during the 14th century. A mystical movement, Hesychasm preached a technique of mental prayer that, when repeated with proper breathing, might enable one to see the divine light.^[183] Emperor Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71) was impressed by the practice of Hesychasm; he became a patron of Hesychastic monks. In 1335, he gave refuge to Gregory of Sinai and provided funds for the construction of a monastery near Paroria in the Strandzha Mountains in the southeast of the country; it attracted clerics from Bulgaria, Byzantium, and Serbia.^[184] Hesychasm established itself as the dominant ideology of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church with the work of the disciple of Gregory of Sinai. Gregory's disciple Theodosius of Tarnovo translated his writing into Bulgarian and reached his peak during the tenure of the last medieval Bulgarian patriarch Euthymius of Tarnovo (1375–94). Theodosius founded the Kilifarevo Monastery near Tarnovo, which became the new Hesychastic and literary centre of the country.^[184][185] Hesychastic intellectuals maintained regular connections with each other regardless of their nationalities, which significantly affected the cultural and religious exchange in the Balkans.

Bogomilism and other heresies

Main article: Bogomilism

dualistic sect, was founded in the 10th century during the First Bulgarian Empire.^[186] It later spread throughout the Balkans and flourished after the fall of Bulgaria under Byzantine rule. The Eastern Orthodox Church considered the Bogomils, who preached civil disobedience that was particularly alarming for the state authorities, heretics.^[186]

Bogomilism saw a major resurge in Bulgaria as a result of the military and political setbacks during the reign of Boril (r. 1207–18). The emperor took swift, decisive measures to suppress the Bogomils; on 11 February 1211 he presided over the first anti-Bogomil synod in Bulgaria, which was held in Tarnovo.^{[187][188][189]} During the discussions, the Bogomils were exposed; those who did not return to Orthodoxy were exiled. Despite the extant union with the Roman Catholic Church, the synod followed strictly the canons of the Orthodox Church. In the specially dedicated Book of Boril, the monarch was described as "Orthodox emperor" and the Synod of Tarnovo was added to the list of Orthodox synods.^[190] As a result of Boril's actions, the influence of the Bogomils was greatly reduced but was not eradicated.

Many heretical movements, including

Barlaamism that arrived with exiles from the Byzantine Empire, established themselves in Bulgaria in the 14th century.^[191] These movements, along with the Bogomilism and Judaism, were condemned by the Council of Tarnovo in 1360, which was attended by the imperial family, the patriarch, nobles, and clerics. There are no sources about the existence of Bogomils in Bulgaria after 1360, implying the sect had already been weakened and had few followers.^[192] Persecution of the remaining Adamites and Barlaamists continued on a smaller scale, headed by Theodosius of Tarnovo and patriarch Euthymius.^[193]

Culture

The Second Bulgarian Empire was a centre of a thriving culture that reached its peak in the mid-to-late 14th century during the reign of Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71).

Tsarigrad.^[197]

Other important cultural hubs included Vidin, Sofia, Messembria, and a large number of monasteries throughout the country.

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School

Left: The Church of Christ Pantocrator in Messembria. Right: The Church of Holy Mother of God in Asen's Fortress

The network of cities in the Second Bulgarian Empire grew in the 13th and 14th centuries; numerous new urban centres rose to prominence. The cities were usually constructed in difficult-to-access locations and generally consisted of an inner and outer town. The nobility lived in the inner town, which included the citadel, while most citizens inhabited the outer town. There were separate neighbourhoods for the nobility, craftsmen, merchants, and foreigners.^[198][199] The capital Tarnovo had three fortified hills—Tsarevets, Trapezitsa, and Momina Krepost, built along the meanders of the Yantra river. Several neighbourhoods along the river's banks including separate quarters for Western Europeans and Jews.^[200]

Fortresses were built on hills and plateaus—the Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates said the Bulgarian castles in the Balkan Mountains were situated "at heights above the clouds".^[201] They were built with crushed stones welded together with plaster, in contrast to the monumental ensembles in the north-east of the country dating from the period of the First Empire.^[201] The gates and the more vulnerable sections were secured with pinnacled towers; these were usually rectangular but there were also irregular, circular, oval, triangular, or horseshoe-shaped towers.^[201]

Religious architecture was very prestigious; churches were among the most decorated and solid edifices in the country. Throughout the 13th and 14th centuries,

belfry above the narthex is a typical characteristic of the architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School. Some churches, such as Holy Mother of God in Asen's Fortress built during the Byzantine rule, were reconstructed with belfries.^[204]

The Church of the Holy Mother of God in Donja Kamenica in the western part of the Bulgarian Empire (in modern Serbia) is notable for its unusual architectural style. Its twin towers are topped off by sharp-pointed pyramidal elements, with additional sharp-pointed details in each of the pyramids' four corners. The towers and their design were entirely unusual and unprecedented in medieval Bulgarian church architecture and were an influence from Hungary or Transylvania.^[205]

The Imperial Palace in Tarnovo was initially a bolyar castle; it underwent two major reconstructions under Ivan Asen II (r. 1218–41) and Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71). The palace had the shape of an irregular ellipse and a built-up area of 5,000 m² (54,000 sq ft).

Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God. The residential and office sections were located in the southern part of the edifice.^[207]

Few examples of nobility houses have survived. To the north of the Imperial Palace, the foundations of a bolyar house from the beginning of the 13th century have been excavated. It had a Г-shaped plan and consisted of a residential area and a small, one-nave church.[208] There were two types of mass dwellings; semi-dug houses and overground houses. The latter were constructed in cities and usually had two stories; the lower floor was built with crushed stones soldered with mud or plaster and the second was built with timber.^[208]

Art

Main article: Painting of the Tarnovo Artistic School

The mainstream of Bulgarian fine arts in the 13th and 14th centuries is known as the

Palaeogan Renaissance in the Byzantine Empire, Bulgarian painting had unique features; it was first classified as a separate artistic school by the French art historian André Grabar.^[209][210] The school's works had some degree of realism, individualized portraits, and psychological insight.^[209][211] Very little secular art of the Second Empire has survived. Fragments of murals depicting a richly decorated figure were uncovered during excavations in the throne room of the Imperial palace in Tarnovo. The walls of the throne room were probably decorated with images of Bulgarian emperors and empresses.^[209]

The frescoes in the

World Heritage List.^[212][214]

In Tarnovo, no complete painting ensemble has survived. The thirty-five scenes preserved in Holy Forty Martyrs Church feature the mild tones and sense of realism characteristic of the school.^[209] Fragments of frescoes were excavated in the ruins of the seventeen churches in Tarnovo's second fortified hill, Trapezitsa; among them were depictions of military figures wearing richly decorated garments.^[209] The palace chapel was decorated with mosaics.^[215] In western Bulgaria, local characteristics of the remnant art include archaism in the composition and unshaded tones, examples of which are found in locations including Zemen Monastery, the Church of the Holy Mother of God in Donja Kamenica, and the Church of St Peter in Berende.^[216]

Many books of the Second Bulgarian Empire contained beautifully crafted miniatures, the most notable examples being the Bulgarian translation of the

Tetraevangelia of Ivan Alexander, and the Tomić Psalter, which together have 554 miniatures.^[217] The style of the miniatures, which depict a variety of theological and secular events and have significant aesthetic value, was influenced by contemporaneous Byzantine works.^[218]

The Tarnovo school continued; it enriched the traditions and icon designs of the First Bulgarian Empire. Some notable icons include St Eleusa (1342) from Messembria, which is currently kept in

Alexander Nevski Cathedral in Sofia, and St John of Rila (14th century), which is kept in Rila Monastery. Like the Boyana Church frescoes, St John of Rila uses realism and non-canonical design.^[219] Some of the preserved icons feature silver platings with enamel images of saints.^[219]

Literature

Main articles: Medieval Bulgarian literature and Tarnovo Literary School

The main centres of literary activity were churches and monasteries, which provided primary education in basic literacy throughout the country. Some monasteries rose to prominence by providing a more advanced education, which included study of advanced grammar; biblical, theological, and ancient texts; and Greek language. Education was available to laymen; it was not restricted to the clergy. Those who completed the advanced studies were called gramatik (граматик).^[195] Books were initially written on parchment, but paper, imported via the port of Varna, was introduced at the beginning of the 14th century. At first, paper was more expensive than parchment, but by the end of the century its cost had fallen, resulting in the production of larger numbers of books.^[220]

Few texts from the 12th and 13th centuries have survived.^[196] Notable examples from that period include the "Book of Boril", an important source for the history of the Bulgarian Empire, and the Dragan Menaion, which includes the earliest known Bulgarian hymnology and hymn tunes, as well as liturgies for Bulgarian saints John of Rila, Cyril and Methodius, and emperor Peter I.^[221] Two poems, written by a Byzantine poet in the court in Tarnovo and dedicated to the wedding of emperor Ivan Asen II and Irene Komnene Doukaina, have survived. The poet compared the emperor to the sun and described him as "more lovely than the day, the most pleasant in appearance".^[222]

During the 14th century, literary activities in the Second Empire were supported by the court, and in particular by emperor Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71), which combined with a number of prolific scholars and clergymen, led to a remarkable literary revival known as the Tarnovo Literary School.^[195][196] Literature was also patronized by some nobles and wealthy citizens.^[223] Literature included translation of Greek texts and the creation of original compositions, both religious and secular. The religious books included praising epistles, passionals, hagiographies, and hymns. Secular literature included chronicles, poetry, novels and novellas, apocryphical tales, popular tales, such as The Story of Troy and Alexandria, legal works, and works on medicine and natural science.^[195]

The first notable 14th century Bulgarian scholar was Theodosius of Tarnovo (d. 1363), who was influenced by Hesychasm and spread hesyachastic ideas in Bulgaria.

Apocryphal literature thrived in the 13th and 14th centuries, often concentrating on issues that were avoided in the official religious works. There were also many fortune-telling books that predicted events based on astrology and dreams.[228] Some of them included political elements, such as a prophecy that an earthquake that occurred at night would confuse people, who would then treat the emperor with disdain.^[229] The authorities condemned apocryphal literature and included such titles in an index of banned books.^[229] Nonetheless, apocryphs spread in Russia; the 16th century Russian noble Andrey Kurbsky called them "Bulgarian fables".^[229]

^ a: Unlike the Byzantine Empire, the taxes in the First Bulgarian Empire were paid in kind.^[21]
^ b: Peter I (r. 927–969) was the first Bulgarian ruler who received official recognition of his imperial title by the Byzantines and enjoyed great popularity during the Byzantine rule. Two other rebel leaders were proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria under the name Peter before Theodore.^[231]
^ c: The Roman and the Latin Empires were referred to by Western Europeans as "Romania".^[232] The term "Franks" (in Bulgarian фръзи, in Greek frankoi) was used by the medieval Bulgarians and Byzantines to describe the whole Catholic population of Europe and the subjects of the Latin Empire.^[233]
^ d: There is no information about territorial changes in the negotiations but many historians suggest that the Serbs occupied Niš at that time.^[108]

References

1. ISBN 9786191760183
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2. ^ S. Kempgen, Remarks on the Patron’s Inscription of the Boyana Church, its Reproductions and Unicode-based Wikipedia Representation. (2010) Scripta & eScripta, vol. 8-9, Sofia, 2010, 27–36.
3. ^ Polyvyannyy, D. (2019). Dynasticity in the Second Bulgarian Tsardom and its Manifestations in Medieval History Writing. Studia Ceranea. Journal of the Waldemar Ceran Research Centre for the History and Culture of the Mediterranean Area and South-East Europe, 9, 351-365. https://doi.org/10.18778/2084-140X.09.19 .
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26. ^ Fine 1987, p. 11
27. ^ Fine 1987, p. 10
28. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 144, 149
29. ^ Fine 1987, pp. 11–12
30. ^ Vásáry 2005, p. 17
31. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 144–145
32. ^ ^{a b} Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 150
33. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 150–151
34. ^ Fine 1987, p. 14
35. ^ Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, p. 431
36. ^ ^{a b} Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 151
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38. ^ Fine 1987, p. 15
39. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 153–155
40. ^ Fine 1987, p. 16
41. ^ ^{a b} Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 145
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43. ^ Fine 1987, p. 27
44. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 156–157
45. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 146–147
46. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 160
47. ^ Fine 1987, p. 31
48. ^ ^{a b} Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 162
49. ^ Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, p. 445
50. ^ ^{a b} Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 165
51. ^ Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, pp. 445–446
52. ^ ^{a b c} Fine 1987, p. 56
53. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 167
54. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 1095
55. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 168–171
56. ^ Fine 1987, pp. 81–82
57. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 171–172
58. ^ Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, p. 457
59. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 180–183
60. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 309
61. ^ Fine 1987, p. 125
62. ^ ^{a b} Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 185
63. ^ Fine 1987, p. 120
64. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 188–189
65. ^ Fine 1987, p. 124
66. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 1134
67. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 189
68. ^ Fine 1987, p. 126
69. ^ Fine 1987, p. 137
70. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 190–191
71. ^ Fine 1987, p. 130
72. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 192–193
73. ^ Vásáry 2005, p. 70
74. ^ Fine 1987, p. 156
75. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 200–201
76. ^ Fine 1987, pp. 156–157
77. ^ ^{a b} Fine 1987, p. 159
78. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 204–205
79. ^ Fine 1987, p. 172
80. ^ Fine 1987, pp. 172, 174
81. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 216
82. ^ Fine 1987, pp. 176–177
83. ^ Vásáry 2005, pp. 74–76
84. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 218
85. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 222–223
86. ^ Vásáry 2005, p. 80
87. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 224–226
88. ^ Fine 1987, pp. 196–197
89. ^ Vásáry 2005, p. 81
90. ^ ^{a b} Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 227
91. ^ Vásáry 2005, p. 83
92. ^ Vásáry 2005, pp. 87–89
93. ^ Fine 1987, p. 228
94. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 247
95. ^ Fine 1987, p. 229
96. ^ Vásáry 2005, p. 110
97. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 248–250
98. ^ Fine 1987, pp. 229–230
99. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 250
100. ^ Fine 1987, p. 230
101. ^ Fine 1987, p. 269
102. ^ Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, p. 563
103. ^ Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, p. 566
104. ^ Fine 1987, p. 270
105. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 1365
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107. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 266
108. ^ ^{a b c} Fine 1987, p. 272
109. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 269–271
110. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 272
111. ^ Божилов 1994, pp. 194–195, 212
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113. ^ Cox 1987, pp. 222–225
114. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 275
115. ^ Коледаров 1989, pp. 13–25, 102
116. ^ Делев et al. 2006.
117. ^ ^{a b} Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 282
118. ^ Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, pp. 655–656
119. ^ Fine 1987, p. 407
120. ^ Fine 1987, p. 266
121. ^ Fine 1987, p. 367
122. ^ Иречек 1978, p. 387
123. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 283–284, 286
124. ^ Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, pp. 662–663
125. ^ Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, p. 666
126. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 297
127. ^ Fine 1987, pp. 424–425
128. ^ Божилов 1994, p. 237
129. ^ Павлов 2008, p. 218
130. ^ ^{a b} Петров & Гюзелев 1978, p. 608
131. ^ Бакалов et al. 2003, p. 402
132. ^ ^{a b} Бакалов et al. 2003, p. 403
133. ^ Петров & Гюзелев 1978, pp. 611–612
134. ^ Петров & Гюзелев 1978, p. 618
135. ^ ^{a b} Бакалов et al. 2003, p. 404
136. ^ Бакалов et al. 2003, pp. 404–405
137. ^ Коледаров 1989, p. 12
138. ^ Петров & Гюзелев 1978, p. 615
139. ^ Коледаров 1989, pp. 9–10
140. ^ ^{a b} Коледаров 1989, p. 10
141. ^ Петров & Гюзелев 1978, pp. 615–616
142. ^ Ангелов et al. 1982, p. 193
143. ^ Ангелов et al. 1982, p. 203
144. ^ Ангелов et al. 1982, pp. 203–205
145. ^ Biliarsky 2011, p. 355.
146. ^ ^{a b} Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 166
147. ^ ^{a b c} Andreev & Lalkov 1996, p. 269
148. ^ Cited in Халенбаков, О. Детска енциклопедия България: Залезът на царете, с. 18
149. ^ Коледаров 1989, pp. 13, 26–27
150. ^ Andreev & Lalkov 1996, pp. 167–169
151. ^ Nicolle, David; Angus McBride (1988). Hungary and the Fall of Eastern Europe 1000-1568. Osprey Publishing. p. 24. The army of the Second Bulgarian Empire was not, of course, solely Cuman... Mercenaries were also recruited, including Russians.
152. ^ "Imago Mundi by Honorius Augustodunensis" in LIBI, vol. III, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, p. 66
153. ^ "History of the Crusade of Emperor Frederick I by Ansbert" in LIBI, vol. III, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, p. 267
154. ^ Ангелов 1950, p. 428
155. ^ Ангелов 1950, p. 429
156. ^ "History of the Crusade of Emperor Frederick I by Ansbert" in LIBI, vol. III, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, p. 283
157. ^ Петров & Гюзелев 1978, p. 238
158. ^ Ангелов 1950, p. 431
159. ^ Петров & Гюзелев 1978, pp. 266, 293–294
160. ^ Лишев 1970, p. 84
161. ^ Петров & Гюзелев 1978, p. 293
162. ^ "Historia by Nicetas Choniates" in GIBI, vol. XI, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, p. 88
163. ^ Лишев 1970, p. 91
164. ^ Дочев 1992, p. 312
165. ^ Радушев 1990, pp. 10, 13 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFРадушев1990 (help)
166. ^ Дочев 1992, pp. 181–183
167. ^ Дочев 1992, pp. 183–184
168. ^ Радушев 1990, p. 21 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFРадушев1990 (help)
169. ^ Дочев 1992, p. 313
170. ^ Радушев 1990, pp. 15, 21 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFРадушев1990 (help)
171. ^ Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, pp. 444–445
172. ^ Fine 1987, p. 55
173. ^ Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, p. 446
174. ^ Дуйчев 1972, p. 426
175. ^ Дуйчев 1972, pp. 426–427
176. ^ ^{a b} Дуйчев 1972, p. 430
177. ^ Златарски 1972, p. 535
178. ^ Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, p. 514
179. ^ Златарски 1972, pp. 536–537
180. ^ Златарски 1972, pp. 596–602
181. ^ ^{a b c} "History of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church". Official Site of the Bulgarian Patriarchate (in Bulgarian). Retrieved 2 February 2014.
182. ^ Бакалов et al. 2003, p. 445
183. ^ Fine 1987, p. 437
184. ^ ^{a b} Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, p. 619
185. ^ ^{a b} Fine 1987, pp. 439–440
186. ^ ^{a b} Kazhdan 1991, p. 301
187. ^ Божилов 1994, p. 71
188. ^ Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, pp. 470–471
189. ^ Fine 1987, p. 100
190. ^ Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, p. 471
191. ^ Fine 1987, p. 441
192. ^ Fine 1987, p. 442
193. ^ ^{a b} Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, p. 620
194. ^ Fine 1987, p. 435
195. ^ ^{a b c d} Fine 1987, p. 436
196. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Kazhdan 1991, p. 337
197. ^ Божилов & Гюзелев 1999, pp. 620–621
198. ^ Ангелов et al. 1982, p. 379
199. ^ Бакалов et al. 2003, pp. 426–427
200. ^ Бакалов et al. 2003, pp. 427–428
201. ^ ^{a b c} Ангелов et al. 1982, p. 381
202. ^ ^{a b c} Ангелов et al. 1982, p. 382
203. ^ Николова 2002, pp. 147–148
204. ^ ^{a b} Ангелов et al. 1982, p. 384
205. ^ Николова 2002, p. 116
206. ^ Ангелов et al. 1982, pp. 384–385
207. ^ "Патриаршеската катедрала "Свето Възнесение Господне"" [The Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God] (in Bulgarian). Православие. Archived from the original on 15 July 2011. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
208. ^ ^{a b} Ангелов et al. 1982, p. 385
209. ^ ^{a b c d e} Ангелов et al. 1982, p. 389
210. ^ Grabar, André (1928). La peinture religiouse en Bulgarie (in French). Paris. p. 95.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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214. ^ ^{a b} "Rock-Hewn Churches of Ivanovo". Official Site of UNESCO. Retrieved 4 November 2014.
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219. ^ ^{a b} Ангелов et al. 1982, p. 392
220. ^ Fine 1987, pp. 436–437
221. ^ Иванов, Йордан (1970). Български старини из Македония (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Българска академия на науките. pp. 296–305, 359–367, 387–390.
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227. ^ Ostrogorsky, George (1969). History of the Byzantine State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 476.
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230. ^ Фоменко 2011, pp. 394–395
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233. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 803

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• Лишев (Lishev), Страшимир (Strashimir) (1970). Българският средновековен град (The Medieval Bulgarian City) (in Bulgarian). София (Sofia): Издателство на БАН (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Press).
• Иречек (Jireček), Константин (Konstantin) (1978). "XXIII Завладяване на България от турците (Conquest of Bulgaria by the Turks)". In Петър Петров (Petar Petrov) (ed.). История на българите с поправки и добавки от самия автор (History of the Bulgarians with corrections and additions by the author)
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• Николова (Nikolova), Бистра (Bistra) (2002). Православните църкви през Българското средновековие IX–XIV в. (The Orthodox churches during the Bulgarian Middle Ages 9th–14th century) (in Bulgarian). София (Sofia): Академично издателство "Марин Дринов" (Academic press "Marin Drinov").
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• Павлов (Pavlov), Пламен (Plamen) (2008). Българското средновековие. Познато и непознато (The Bulgarian Middle Ages. Known and Unknown) (in Bulgarian). Велико Търново (Veliko Tarnovo): Абагар (Abagar).
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• Петров (Petrov), П. (P.); Гюзелев (Gyuzelev), Васил (Vasil) (1978). Христоматия по история на България. Том 2. Същинско средновековие XII–XIV век (Reader on the History of Bulgaria. Volume 2. High Middle Ages XII–XIV centuries) (in Bulgarian). София (Sofia): Издателство Наука и изкуство.
• Радушев (Radushev), Ангел (Angel); Жеков (Zhekov), Господин (Gospodin) (1999). Каталог на българските средновековни монети IX–XV век (Catalogue of the Medieval Bulgarian coins IX–XV centuries) (in Bulgarian). Агато (Anubis).
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• Фоменко (Fomenko), Игорь Константинович (Igor K.) (2011). "Карты-реконструкции = Reconstruction maps". Образ мира на старинных портоланах. Причерноморье. Конец XIII – XVII [The Image of the World on Old Portolans. The Black Sea Littoral from the End of the 13th – the 17th Centuries] (in Russian). Moscow: "Индрик" (Indrik).
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• Цончева (Tsoncheva), М. (M.) (1974). Търновска книжовна школа. 1371–1971 (Tarnovo Literary School. 1371–1971) (in Bulgarian). София (Sofia).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Second Bulgarian Empire.

• Mladjov, Ian. "Detailed List of Bulgarian Rulers" (PDF). Retrieved 26 February 2012.
• Стоименов, Димитър. "Средновековна България (VII–XIV в.) (Medieval Bulgaria VII–XIV centuries)" (in Bulgarian). Държавна агенция "Архиви" (State Agency "Archives". Archived from the original on 29 January 2012. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
• "Грамота на цар Иван Асен ІІ, даваща свободен достъп на търговците от Дубровник във всички области на българското царство (1230 г.) (Charter of emperor Ivan Asen II giving free access to the merchants of Dubrovnik to all provinces of the Bulgarian Empire, 1230)" (in Bulgarian). Държавна агенция "Архиви" (State Agency "Archives". Archived from the original on 8 November 2014. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
• "История на Българската православна църква (History of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church)". Официален сайт на Българската патриарпия (Official Site of the Bulgarian Patriarchate) (in Bulgarian). Retrieved 2 February 2014.