Tuvalu
Tuvalu Tuuvalu (Tuvaluan) | |
---|---|
Motto: Tuvalu mo te Atua ( parliamentary constitutional monarchy | |
• Monarch | Charles III |
Tofiga Vaevalu Falani | |
Feleti Teo | |
Legislature | Parliament |
Independence | |
• from the United Kingdom | 1 October 1978 |
Area | |
• Total | 26 km2 (10 sq mi)[3] (192nd) |
• Water (%) | negligible |
Population | |
• 2021 estimate | 11,900 (194th) |
• 2017 census | 10,645 |
• Density | 475.88/km2 (1,232.5/sq mi) (27th) |
GDP (PPP) | 2023 estimate |
• Total | $63 million[4] |
• Per capita | $5,765[4] |
GDP (nominal) | 2023 estimate |
• Total | $63 million[4] |
• Per capita | $5,772[4] |
Gini (2010) | 39.1[5] medium |
HDI (2021) | 0.641[6] medium (130th) |
Currency | ( +688 |
ISO 3166 code | TV |
Internet TLD | .tv |
Tuvalu (/tuːˈvɑːluː/ ⓘ too-VAH-loo),[7] formerly known as the Ellice Islands, is an island country in the Polynesian subregion of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean, about midway between Hawaii and Australia. It lies east-northeast of the Santa Cruz Islands (which belong to the Solomon Islands), northeast of Vanuatu, southeast of Nauru, south of Kiribati, west of Tokelau, northwest of Samoa and Wallis and Futuna, and north of Fiji.
Tuvalu is composed of three reef islands and six atolls spread out between the latitude of 5° and 10° south and between the longitude of 176° and 180°. They lie west of the International Date Line.[8] The 2017 census determined that Tuvalu had a population of 10,645, making it the second-least populous country in the world, behind Vatican City. Its total land area is 26 square kilometres (10 sq mi).
The first inhabitants of Tuvalu were
In 1569, Spanish explorer and
A
The islands do not have a significant amount of soil, so the country relies heavily on imports and fishing for food. Licensing fishing permits to international companies, grants and aid projects, and remittances to their families from Tuvaluan seafarers who work on cargo ships are important parts of the economy. Because it is a low-lying island nation, the country is extremely vulnerable to sea level rise due to climate change. It is active in international climate negotiations as part of the Alliance of Small Island States.
History
Prehistory
The
An important
Early contacts with other cultures
Tuvalu was first sighted by Europeans on 16 January 1568, during the voyage of Álvaro de Mendaña from Spain, who sailed past Nui and charted it as Isla de Jesús (Spanish for "Island of Jesus") because the previous day was the feast of the Holy Name. Mendaña made contact with the islanders but was unable to land.[22][23] During Mendaña's second voyage across the Pacific, he passed Niulakita on 29 August 1595, which he named La Solitaria.[23][24]
Captain John Byron passed through the islands of Tuvalu in 1764, during his circumnavigation of the globe as captain of the Dolphin (1751).[25] He charted the atolls as Lagoon Islands. The first recorded sighting of Nanumea by Europeans was by Spanish naval officer Francisco Mourelle de la Rúa who sailed past it on 5 May 1781 as captain of the frigate La Princesa, when attempting a southern crossing of the Pacific from the Philippines to New Spain. He charted Nanumea as San Augustin.[26][27] Keith S. Chambers and Doug Munro (1980) identified Niutao as the island that Mourelle also sailed past on 5 May 1781, thus solving what Europeans had called The Mystery of Gran Cocal.[24][28] Mourelle's map and journal named the island El Gran Cocal ('The Great Coconut Plantation'); however, the latitude and longitude was uncertain.[28] Longitude could be reckoned only crudely at the time, as accurate chronometers did not become available until the late 18th century.
In 1809, Captain Patterson in the brig Elizabeth sighted Nanumea while passing through the northern Tuvalu waters on a trading voyage from Port Jackson, Sydney, Australia to China.[26] In May 1819, Arent Schuyler de Peyster, of New York, captain of the armed
In 1820, the Russian explorer
For less than a year between 1862 and 1863, Peruvian ships engaged in the so-called "blackbirding" trade, by which they recruited or impressed workers, combed the smaller islands of Polynesia from Easter Island in the eastern Pacific to Tuvalu and the southern atolls of the Gilbert Islands (now Kiribati). They sought recruits to fill the extreme labour shortage in Peru.[37] On Funafuti and Nukulaelae, the resident traders facilitated the recruiting of the islanders by the "blackbirders".[38] The Rev. Archibald Wright Murray,[39] the earliest European missionary in Tuvalu, reported that in 1863 about 170 people were taken from Funafuti and about 250 were taken from Nukulaelae,[28] as there were fewer than 100 of the 300 recorded in 1861 as living on Nukulaelae.[40][41]
Christianity came to Tuvalu in 1861 when
The islands came into Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century, when each of the Ellice Islands was declared a British protectorate by Captain Herbert Gibson of HMS Curacoa, between 9 and 16 October 1892.[45]
Trading firms and traders
Trading companies became active in Tuvalu in the mid-19th century; the trading companies engaged white (palagi) traders who lived on the islands. John (also known as Jack) O'Brien was the first European to settle in Tuvalu; he became a trader on Funafuti in the 1850s. He married Salai, the daughter of the paramount chief of Funafuti. Louis Becke, who later found success as a writer, was a trader on Nanumanga from April 1880 until the trading station was destroyed later that year in a cyclone.[46] He then became a trader on Nukufetau.[47][48][49]
In 1892, Captain
In the 1890s, structural changes occurred in the operation of the Pacific trading companies; they moved from a practice of having traders resident on each island to instead becoming a business operation where the
Scientific expeditions and travellers
The United States Exploring Expedition under Charles Wilkes visited Funafuti, Nukufetau, and Vaitupu in 1841.[55] During this expedition, engraver and illustrator Alfred Thomas Agate recorded the dress and tattoo patterns of the men of Nukufetau.[56]
In 1885 or 1886, the New Zealand photographer Thomas Andrew visited Funafuti[57] and Nui.[58][59]
In 1890,
In 1894, Count Rudolf Festetics de Tolna, his wife Eila (née Haggin) and her daughter Blanche Haggin visited Funafuti aboard the yacht Le Tolna.[64] The Count spent several days photographing men and women on Funafuti.[65][66]
The boreholes on Funafuti, at the site now called Darwin's Drill,
Harry Clifford Fassett, captain's clerk and photographer, recorded people, communities and scenes at Funafuti in 1900 during a visit of USFC Albatross when the United States Fish Commission was investigating the formation of coral reefs on Pacific atolls.[76]
Colonial administration
The Ellice Islands were administered as a
Second World War
During the Second World War, as a British colony the Ellice Islands were aligned with the Allies. Early in the war, the Japanese invaded and occupied Makin, Tarawa and other islands in what is now Kiribati. The United States Marine Corps landed on Funafuti on 2 October 1942,[77] and on Nanumea and Nukufetau in August 1943. Funafuti was used as a base to prepare for the subsequent seaborne attacks on the Gilbert Islands (Kiribati) that were occupied by Japanese forces.[78]
The islanders assisted the American forces to build airfields on Funafuti, Nanumea and Nukufetau and to unload supplies from ships.
The atolls of Tuvalu acted as staging posts during the preparation for the Battle of Tarawa and the Battle of Makin that commenced on 20 November 1943, which were part of the implementation of "Operation Galvanic".[85][86] After the war, the military airfield on Funafuti was developed into Funafuti International Airport.
Post-World War II – transition to independence
The formation of the United Nations after World War II resulted in the
In 1974, the ministerial government was introduced to the
In 1976, Tuvalu adopted the Tuvaluan dollar, whose currency circulates alongside the Australian dollar,[94][95] which was previously adopted in 1966.
Elections to the House of Assembly of the British Colony of Tuvalu were held on 27 August 1977, with Toaripi Lauti being appointed Chief Minister in the House of Assembly of the Colony of Tuvalu on 1 October 1977. The House of Assembly was dissolved in July 1978, with the government of Toaripi Lauti continuing as a caretaker government until the 1981 elections were held.[96]
Independence
Toaripi Lauti became the first Prime Minister on 1 October 1978, when Tuvalu became an independent nation.[87][92]: 153–177 That date is also celebrated as the country's Independence Day and is a public holiday.[97]
On 26 October 1982,
On 5 September 2000, Tuvalu became the 189th member of the United Nations.[98]
On 15 November 2022, amidst sea level rises, Tuvalu announced plans as the first country in the world to build a self-digital replica in the metaverse in order to preserve its cultural heritage.[99]
On 10 November 2023, Tuvalu signed the Falepili Union treaty with Australia.[100] In the Tuvaluan language, Falepili describes the traditional values of good neighbourliness, care and mutual respect.[101] The Treaty addresses climate change and security,[101] with security threats encompassing major natural disasters, health pandemics and traditional security threats.[101] The implementation of the Treaty will involve Australia increasing its contribution to the Tuvalu Trust Fund and the Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project.[101] Australia will also provide a pathway for 280 citizens of Tuvalu to migrate to Australia each year, to enable climate-related mobility for Tuvaluans.[101][102]
Geography and environment
Geography
Tuvalu is a volcanic archipelago, and consists of three
Funafuti is the largest atoll, and comprises numerous islets around a central lagoon that is approximately 25.1 kilometres (15.6 miles) (N–S) by 18.4 kilometres (11.4 miles) (W-E), centred on 179°7'E and 8°30'S. On the atolls, an annular reef rim surrounds the lagoon with seven natural reef channels.[107] Surveys were carried out in May 2010 of the reef habitats of Nanumea, Nukulaelae and Funafuti; a total of 317 fish species were recorded during this Tuvalu Marine Life study. The surveys identified 66 species that had not previously been recorded in Tuvalu, which brings the total number of identified species to 607.[108][109] Tuvalu's exclusive economic zone (EEZ) covers an oceanic area of approximately 900,000 km2.[110]
Tuvalu signed the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992, and ratified it in December 2002.[111][112] The predominant vegetation type on the islands of Tuvalu is the cultivated coconut woodland, which covers 43% of the land. The native broadleaf forest is limited to 4.1% of the vegetation types.[113] Tuvalu contains the Western Polynesian tropical moist forests terrestrial ecoregion.[114]
Environmental pressures
The eastern shoreline of Funafuti Lagoon on
During World War II, several piers were also constructed on Fongafale in the Funafuti Lagoon; beach areas were filled and deep-water access channels were excavated. These alterations to the reef and shoreline resulted in changes to wave patterns, with less sand accumulating to form the beaches, compared to former times; the shoreline is now exposed to wave action. Several attempts to stabilise the shoreline have not achieved the desired effect.[119]
The
The rising population has resulted in an increased demand on fish stocks, which are under stress,
In 2023 the governments of Tuvalu and other islands vulnerable to climate change (Fiji, Niue, the Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu) launched the "Port Vila Call for a Just Transition to a Fossil Fuel Free Pacific", calling for the phase out fossil fuels and the 'rapid and just transition' to renewable energy and strengthening environmental law including introducing the crime of ecocide.[130][131][132]
Climate
Tuvalu experiences two distinct seasons, a wet season from November to April and a dry season from May to October.[133] Westerly gales and heavy rain are the predominant weather conditions from November to April, the period that is known as Tau-o-lalo, with tropical temperatures moderated by easterly winds from May to October.
Tuvalu experiences the effects of
Climate data for Funafuti (Köppen Af) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 33.8 (92.8) |
34.4 (93.9) |
34.4 (93.9) |
33.2 (91.8) |
33.9 (93.0) |
33.9 (93.0) |
32.8 (91.0) |
32.9 (91.2) |
32.8 (91.0) |
34.4 (93.9) |
33.9 (93.0) |
33.9 (93.0) |
34.4 (93.9) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 30.7 (87.3) |
30.8 (87.4) |
30.6 (87.1) |
31.0 (87.8) |
30.9 (87.6) |
30.6 (87.1) |
30.4 (86.7) |
30.4 (86.7) |
30.7 (87.3) |
31.0 (87.8) |
31.2 (88.2) |
31.0 (87.8) |
30.8 (87.4) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 28.2 (82.8) |
28.1 (82.6) |
28.1 (82.6) |
28.2 (82.8) |
28.4 (83.1) |
28.3 (82.9) |
28.1 (82.6) |
28.1 (82.6) |
28.2 (82.8) |
28.2 (82.8) |
28.4 (83.1) |
28.3 (82.9) |
28.2 (82.8) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 25.5 (77.9) |
25.3 (77.5) |
25.4 (77.7) |
25.7 (78.3) |
25.8 (78.4) |
25.9 (78.6) |
25.7 (78.3) |
25.8 (78.4) |
25.8 (78.4) |
25.7 (78.3) |
25.8 (78.4) |
25.7 (78.3) |
25.8 (78.4) |
Record low °C (°F) | 22.0 (71.6) |
22.2 (72.0) |
22.8 (73.0) |
23.0 (73.4) |
20.5 (68.9) |
23.0 (73.4) |
21.0 (69.8) |
16.1 (61.0) |
20.0 (68.0) |
21.0 (69.8) |
22.8 (73.0) |
22.8 (73.0) |
16.1 (61.0) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 413.7 (16.29) |
360.6 (14.20) |
324.3 (12.77) |
255.8 (10.07) |
259.8 (10.23) |
216.6 (8.53) |
253.1 (9.96) |
275.9 (10.86) |
217.5 (8.56) |
266.5 (10.49) |
275.9 (10.86) |
393.9 (15.51) |
3,512.6 (138.29) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 20 | 19 | 20 | 19 | 18 | 19 | 19 | 18 | 16 | 18 | 17 | 19 | 223 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
82 | 82 | 82 | 82 | 82 | 82 | 83 | 82 | 81 | 81 | 80 | 81 | 82 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 179.8 | 161.0 | 186.0 | 201.0 | 195.3 | 201.0 | 195.3 | 220.1 | 210.0 | 232.5 | 189.0 | 176.7 | 2,347.7 |
Mean daily sunshine hours | 5.8 | 5.7 | 6.0 | 6.7 | 6.3 | 6.7 | 6.3 | 7.1 | 7.0 | 7.5 | 6.3 | 5.7 | 6.4 |
Source: Deutscher Wetterdienst[135] |
Impact of climate change
As low-lying islands lacking a surrounding shallow shelf, the communities of Tuvalu are especially susceptible to changes in sea level and undissipated storms.[136][137][138] At its highest, Tuvalu is only 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Tuvaluan leaders have been concerned about the effects of rising sea levels.[139] It is estimated that a sea level rise of 20–40 centimetres (8–16 inches) in the next 100 years could make Tuvalu uninhabitable.[140][141] A study published in 2018 estimated the change in land area of Tuvalu's nine atolls and 101 reef islands between 1971 and 2014, indicating that 75% of the islands had grown in area, with an overall increase of more than 2%.[142] Enele Sopoaga, the Prime Minister of Tuvalu at the time, responded to the research by stating that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land.[143][144] Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.[145]
Whether there are measurable changes in the sea level relative to the islands of Tuvalu is a contentious issue.[146][147] There were problems associated with the pre-1993 sea level records from Funafuti which resulted in improvements in the recording technology to provide more reliable data for analysis.[141] The degree of uncertainty as to estimates of sea level change relative to the islands of Tuvalu was reflected in the conclusions made in 2002 from the available data.[141] The uncertainty as to the accuracy of the data from this tide gauge resulted in a modern Aquatrak acoustic gauge being installed in 1993 by the Australian National Tidal Facility (NTF) as part of the AusAID-sponsored South Pacific Sea Level and Climate Monitoring Project.[148] The 2011 report of the Pacific Climate Change Science Program published by the Australian Government,[149] concludes: "The sea-level rise near Tuvalu measured by satellite altimeters since 1993 is about 5 mm (0.2 in) per year."[150]
Tuvalu has adopted a national plan of action as the observable transformations over the last ten to fifteen years show Tuvaluans that there have been changes to the sea levels.[151] These include sea water bubbling up through the porous coral rock to form pools at high tide and the flooding of low-lying areas including the airport during spring tides and king tides.[115][116][152][153][154]
In November 2022, Simon Kofe, Minister for Justice, Communication & Foreign Affairs, proclaimed that in response to rising sea levels and the perceived failures by the outside world to combat global warming, the country would be uploading a virtual version of itself to the metaverse in an effort to preserve its history and culture.[155]
The major concerns about climate change has led to the launching and development of the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA). These adaptation measures are needed to decrease the amount and volume of the negative effects from climate change. NAPA has selected seven adaptation projects with all different themes. These are: coastal, agricultural, water, health, fisheries (two different projects) and disaster. For example, a 'target' of one of these projects, like the project 'coastal', is 'increasing resilience of coastal areas and settlement to climate change'. And for the project 'water' it is 'adaptation to frequent water shortages through increasing household water capacity, water collection accessories, and water conservation techniques'.[156]
The
Cyclones and king tides
Cyclones
Because of the low elevation, the islands that make up this nation are vulnerable to the effects of tropical cyclones and by the threat of current and future sea level rise.[127][158][159] A warning system, which uses the Iridium satellite network, was introduced in 2016 to allow outlying islands to be better prepared for natural disasters.[160]
The highest elevation is 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level on Niulakita.[161] Tuvalu thus has the second-lowest maximum elevation of any country (after the Maldives). The highest elevations are typically in narrow storm dunes on the ocean side of the islands which are prone to overtopping in tropical cyclones, as occurred with Cyclone Bebe, which was a very early-season storm that passed through the Tuvaluan atolls in October 1972.[162] Cyclone Bebe submerged Funafuti, eliminating 95% of structures on the island, with 6 people lost in the cyclone.[163] Sources of drinking water were contaminated as a result of the system's storm surge and the flooding of the sources of fresh water.[164]
George Westbrook, a trader on Funafuti, recorded a cyclone that struck Funafuti on 23–24 December 1883.[165] A cyclone struck Nukulaelae on 17–18 March 1886.[165] A cyclone caused severe damage to the islands in 1894.[166]
Tuvalu experienced an average of three cyclones per decade between the 1940s and 1970s; however, eight occurred in the 1980s.
In March 2015, the winds and storm surge created by Cyclone Pam resulted in waves of 3 metres (9.8 ft) to 5 metres (16 ft) breaking over the reef of the outer islands, causing damage to houses, crops and infrastructure.[169][170] A state of emergency was declared. On Nui, the sources of fresh water were destroyed or contaminated.[171][172][173] The flooding in Nui and Nukufetau caused many families to shelter in evacuation centres or with other families.[174] Nui suffered the most damage of the three central islands (Nui, Nukufetau and Vaitupu);[175] with both Nui and Nukufetau suffering the loss of 90% of the crops.[176] Of the three northern islands (Nanumanga, Niutao and Nanumea), Nanumanga suffered the most damage, with from 60 to 100 houses flooded, with the waves also causing damage to the health facility.[176] Vasafua islet, part of the Funafuti Conservation Area, was severely damaged by Cyclone Pam. The coconut palms were washed away, leaving the islet as a sand bar.[177][178]
The Tuvalu Government carried out assessments of the damage caused by Cyclone Pam to the islands and has provided medical aid, food as well as assistance for the cleaning-up of storm debris. Government and Non-Government Organisations provided assistance technical, funding and material support to Tuvalu to assist with recovery, including WHO, UNICEF EAPRO, UNDP Asia-Pacific Development Information Programme, OCHA, World Bank, DFAT, New Zealand Red Cross & IFRC, Fiji National University and governments of New Zealand, Netherlands, UAE, Taiwan and the United States.[179]
Despite passing over 500 km (310 mi) to the south of the island nation, Cyclone Tino and its associated convergence zone impacted the whole of Tuvalu between January 16 - 19 of 2020.[180][181]
King tides
Tuvalu is also affected by
Water and sanitation
Rainwater harvesting is the principal source of fresh water in Tuvalu. Nukufetau, Vaitupu and Nanumea are the only islands with sustainable groundwater supplies. The effectiveness of rainwater harvesting is diminished because of poor maintenance of roofs, gutters and pipes.[186][187] Aid programmes of Australia and the European Union have been directed to improving the storage capacity on Funafuti and in the outer islands.[188]
Reverse osmosis (R/O) desalination units supplement rainwater harvesting on Funafuti. The 65 m3 desalination plant operates at a real production level of around 40 m3 per day. R/O water is only intended to be produced when storage falls below 30%, however demand to replenish household storage supplies with tanker-delivered water means that the R/O desalination units are continually operating. Water is delivered at a cost of A$3.50 per m3. Cost of production and delivery has been estimated at A$6 per m3, with the difference subsidised by the government.[186]
In July 2012, a United Nations Special Rapporteur called on the Tuvalu Government to develop a national water strategy to improve access to safe drinking water and sanitation.[189][190] In 2012, Tuvalu developed a National Water Resources Policy under the Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) Project and the Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change (PACC) Project, which are sponsored by the Global Environment Fund/SOPAC. Government water planning has established a target of between 50 and 100L of water per person per day accounting for drinking water, cleaning, community and cultural activities.[186]
Tuvalu is working with the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) to implement composting toilets and to improve the treatment of sewage sludge from septic tanks on Fongafale, for septic tanks are leaking into the freshwater lens in the sub-surface of the atoll as well as the ocean and lagoon. Composting toilets reduce water use by up to 30%.[186]
Government
Parliamentary democracy
The Constitution of Tuvalu states that it is "the supreme law of Tuvalu" and that "all other laws shall be interpreted and applied subject to this Constitution"; it sets out the Principles of the Bill of Rights and the Protection of the Fundamental Rights and Freedoms. On 5 September 2023, Tuvalu’s parliament passed the Constitution of Tuvalu Act 2023,[191] with the changes to the constitution came into effect on 1 October 2023.[192]
Tuvalu is a
From 1974 (the creation of the British colony of Tuvalu) until independence, the legislative body of Tuvalu was called the House of the Assembly or Fale I Fono. Following independence in October 1978, the House of the Assembly was renamed the Parliament of Tuvalu or Palamene o Tuvalu.[96] The place at which the parliament sits is called the Vaiaku maneapa.[193] The maneapa on each island is an open meeting place where the chiefs and elders deliberate and make decisions.[193]
The
The 2023 amendments to the Constitution recognise the Falekaupule as the traditional governing authorities of the islands of Tuvalu.[194]
The Tuvalu National Library and Archives holds "vital documentation on the cultural, social and political heritage of Tuvalu", including surviving records from the colonial administration, as well as Tuvalu government archives.[195]
Tuvalu is a state party to the following human rights treaties: the
The national strategy plan Te Kete - National Strategy for Sustainable Development 2021-2030 sets out the development agenda of the Government of Tuvalu,[197][198] which followed on from Te Kakeega III – National Strategy for Sustainable Development-2016-2020 (TK III). The areas of development in these strategic plans include education; climate change; environment; migration and urbanisation.[197][199]
The Tuvalu National Council for Women acts as an umbrella organisation for non-governmental women's rights groups throughout the country and works closely with the government.[200]
Legal system
There are eight Island Courts and Lands Courts; appeals in relation to land disputes are made to the Lands Courts Appeal Panel. Appeals from the Island Courts and the Lands Courts Appeal Panel are made to the Magistrates Court, which has jurisdiction to hear civil cases involving up to
With regard to the judiciary, "the first female Island Court magistrate was appointed to the Island Court in Nanumea in the 1980s and another in Nukulaelae in the early 1990s." There were 7 female magistrates in the Island Courts of Tuvalu (as of 2007) in comparison "to the past where only one woman magistrate served in the Magistrate Court of Tuvalu."[203]
The Law of Tuvalu comprises the Acts voted into law by the Parliament of Tuvalu and statutory instruments that become law; certain Acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom (during the time Tuvalu was either a British protectorate or British colony); the common law; and customary law (particularly in relation to the ownership of land).[201][202] The land tenure system is largely based on kaitasi (extended family ownership).[204]
Foreign relations
Tuvalu participates in the work of
Tuvalu maintains close relations with Fiji, New Zealand, Australia (which has maintained a High Commission in Tuvalu since 2018),[207] Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, the United States of America, the United Kingdom and the European Union. It has diplomatic relations with Taiwan;[208][209][210] which maintains an embassy in Tuvalu and has a large assistance programme in the islands.[211][212]
A major international priority for Tuvalu in the UN, at the 2002 Earth Summit in Johannesburg, South Africa and in other international fora, is promoting concern about global warming and the possible sea level rising. Tuvalu advocates ratification and implementation of the Kyoto Protocol. In December 2009, the islands stalled talks on climate change at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, fearing some other developing countries were not committing fully to binding deals on a reduction in carbon emissions. Their chief negotiator stated, "Tuvalu is one of the most vulnerable countries in the world to climate change and our future rests on the outcome of this meeting."[213]
Tuvalu participates in the
Tuvalu is party to a treaty of friendship with the United States, signed soon after independence and ratified by the US Senate in 1983, under which the United States renounced prior territorial claims to four Tuvaluan islands (Funafuti, Nukufetau, Nukulaelae and Niulakita) under the Guano Islands Act of 1856.[216]
Tuvalu participates in the operations of the
In July 2013, Tuvalu signed the memorandum of understanding (MOU) to establish the Pacific Regional Trade and Development Facility, which Facility originated in 2006, in the context of negotiations for an Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) between Pacific ACP States and the European Union. The rationale for the creation of the Facility being to improve the delivery of aid to Pacific island countries in support of the Aid-for-Trade (AfT) requirements. The Pacific ACP States are the countries in the Pacific that are signatories to the Cotonou Agreement with the European Union.[223] On 31 May 2017 the first enhanced High Level Political Dialogue between Tuvalu and the European Union under the Cotonou Agreement was held in Funafuti.[224]
On 18 February 2016, Tuvalu signed the Pacific Islands Development Forum Charter and formally joined the Pacific Islands Development Forum (PIDF).[225] In June 2017, Tuvalu signed the Pacific Agreement on Closer Economic Relations (PACER).[226][227] Tuvalu ratified the PACER agreement in January 2022. The agreement is designed to reduce trade barriers between signatories of the agreement. Existing import tariffs will reduce to zero, and the agreement contemplates additional actions to reduce trade barriers, including harmonizing customs procedures and rules of origin, as well as eliminating restrictions to services trade, and improving labour mobility schemes between countries.[228]
Defence and law enforcement
Tuvalu has no regular military forces, and spends no money on the military. Its national police force, the Tuvalu Police Force headquartered in Funafuti, includes a maritime surveillance unit, customs, prisons and immigration. Police officers wear British-style uniforms.
From 1994 to 2019 the Tuvalu policed its 200-kilometre
In May 2023 the Government of Tuvalu signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Sea Shepherd Global, which is based in the Netherlands, to combat
Male homosexuality is illegal in Tuvalu.[234] Crime in Tuvalu is not a significant social problem due to an effective criminal justice system, also due to the influence of the Falekaupule (the traditional assembly of elders of each island) and the central role of religious institutions in the Tuvaluan community.
Administrative divisions
Tuvalu consists of six atolls and three reef islands. The smallest, Niulakita, is administered as part of Niutao.
Each island has its own high-chief, or
Local government districts consisting of more than one islet:
Local government districts consisting of only one island:
Tuvalu has ISO 3166-2 codes defined for one town council (Funafuti) and seven island councils. Niulakita, which now has its own island council, is not listed, as it is administered as part of Niutao.
Society
Demographics
The population at the 2002 census was 9,561,[237] and the population at the 2017 census was 10,645.[238][239] The most recent evaluation in 2020 puts the population at 11,342.[240] The population of Tuvalu is primarily of Polynesian ethnicity, with approximately 5.6% of the population being Micronesians speaking Gilbertese, especially on Nui.[238]
Life expectancy for
From 1947 to 1983, a number of Tuvaluans from Vaitupu migrated to Kioa, an island in Fiji.[243] The settlers from Tuvalu were granted Fijian citizenship in 2005. In recent years, New Zealand and Australia have been the primary destinations for migration or seasonal work.
In 2014, attention was drawn to an appeal to the New Zealand Immigration and Protection Tribunal against the deportation of a Tuvaluan family on the basis that they were "
New Zealand announced the Pacific Access Category in 2001, which provided an annual quota of 75 work permits for Tuvaluans.[248] The applicants register for the Pacific Access Category (PAC) ballots; the primary criterion is that the principal applicant must have a job offer from a New Zealand employer.[249] Tuvaluans also have access to seasonal employment in the horticulture and viticulture industries in New Zealand under the Recognised Seasonal Employer (RSE) Work Policy introduced in 2007 allowing for employment of up to 5,000 workers from Tuvalu and other Pacific islands.[250] Tuvaluans can participate in the Australian Pacific Seasonal Worker Program, which allows Pacific Islanders to obtain seasonal employment in the Australian agriculture industry, in particular, cotton and cane operations; fishing industry, in particular aquaculture; and with accommodation providers in the tourism industry.[251]
On 10 November 2023, Tuvalu signed the Falepili Union, a bilateral diplomatic relationship with Australia, under which Australia will provide a pathway for citizens of Tuvalu to migrate to Australia, to enable climate-related mobility for Tuvaluans.[252][253]
Languages
The Tuvaluan language and English are the national languages of Tuvalu. Tuvaluan is of the Ellicean group of Polynesian languages, distantly related to all other Polynesian languages such as Hawaiian, Māori, Tahitian, Rapa Nui, Samoan and Tongan.[254] It is most closely related to the languages spoken on the Polynesian outliers in Micronesia and northern and central Melanesia. The Tuvaluan language has borrowed from the Samoan language, as a consequence of Christian missionaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries being predominantly Samoan.[44][254]
The Tuvaluan language is spoken by virtually everyone, while a Micronesian language very similar to Gilbertese is spoken on Nui.[254][255] English is also an official language but is not spoken in daily use. Parliament and official functions are conducted in the Tuvaluan language.
There are about 13,000 Tuvaluan speakers worldwide.[256][257] Radio Tuvalu transmits Tuvaluan-language programming.[258][259][260]
Religion
The
Other Christian groups include the
The
The introduction of Christianity ended the worship of ancestral spirits and other deities (animism),[269] along with the power of the vaka-atua (the priests of the old religions).[270] Laumua Kofe describes the objects of worship as varying from island to island, although ancestor worship was described by the Rev. Samuel James Whitmee in 1870 as being common practice.[271]
Health
The
Since the late 20th century, the biggest health problems in Tuvalu are obesity-related. The leading cause of death has been
Education
Education in Tuvalu is free and compulsory between the ages of 6 and 15 years. Each island has a primary school. Motufoua Secondary School is located on Vaitupu.[275] Students board at the school during the school term, returning to their home islands each school vacation. Fetuvalu Secondary School, a day school operated by the Church of Tuvalu, is on Funafuti.[276]
Fetuvalu offers the
Required attendance at school is 10 years for males and 11 years for females (2001).
Community Training Centres (CTCs) have been established within the primary schools on each atoll. They provide
Four tertiary institutions offer technical and vocational courses: Tuvalu Maritime Training Institute (TMTI), Tuvalu Atoll Science Technology Training Institute (TASTII), Australian Pacific Training Coalition (APTC) and University of the South Pacific (USP) Extension Centre.[282]
The Tuvaluan Employment Ordinance of 1966 sets the
The Human Rights Measurement Initiative (HRMI)[284] assesses that Tuvalu is fulfilling only 88.0% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to education based on the country's level of income.[285] HRMI breaks down the right to education by looking at the rights to both primary education and secondary education. While taking into consideration Tuvalu's income level, the nation is achieving 97.7% of what should be possible based on its resources (income) for primary education but only 78.3% for secondary education.[285]
Culture
Architecture
The traditional buildings of Tuvalu used plants and trees from the native broadleaf forest,[286] including timber from pouka (Hernandia peltata); ngia or ingia bush (Pemphis acidula); miro (Thespesia populnea); tonga (Rhizophora mucronata); fau or fo fafini, or woman's fibre tree (Hibiscus tiliaceus).[286] Fibre is from coconut; ferra, native fig (Ficus aspem); fala, screw pine or Pandanus.[286] The buildings were constructed without nails, lashed together with plaited sennit rope handmade from dried coconut fibre.[287]
Following contact with Europeans, iron products were used including nails and corrugated roofing material. Modern buildings in Tuvalu are constructed from imported building materials, including imported timber and concrete.[287]
Church and community buildings (maneapa) are usually coated with white paint that is known as lase, which is made by burning a large amount of dead coral with firewood. The whitish powder that is the result is mixed with water and painted on the buildings.[288]
Art
The women of Tuvalu use
In 2015, an exhibition was held on Funafuti of the art of Tuvalu, with works that addressed climate change through the eyes of artists and the display of Kope ote olaga (possessions of life), a display of the various artefacts of Tuvalu culture.[294]
Dance and music
The traditional music of Tuvalu consists of a number of dances, including
Cuisine
The
Pulaka is the main source for carbohydrates. Seafood provides protein. Bananas and breadfruit are supplemental crops. Coconut is used for its juice, to make other beverages (such as toddy) and to improve the taste of some dishes.[236]
A 1560-square-metre pond was built in 1996 on Vaitupu to sustain aquaculture in Tuvalu.[303]
Flying fish are also caught as a source of food;[300][301][302] and as an exciting activity, using a boat, a butterfly net and a spotlight to attract the flying fish.[236]
Heritage
The traditional community system still survives to a large extent on Tuvalu. Each family has its own task, or salanga, to perform for the community, such as fishing,
Most islands have their own fusi, community-owned shops similar to convenience stores, where
Another important building is the falekaupule or
Tuvalu does not have any museums, however the creation of a Tuvalu National Cultural Centre and Museum is part of the government's strategic plan for 2018–24.[305][306]
Traditional single-outrigger canoe
Sport and leisure
A traditional sport played in Tuvalu is kilikiti,[308] which is similar to cricket.[309] A popular sport specific to Tuvalu is Te ano (The ball), which is played with two round balls of 12 cm (5 in) diameter.[236] Te ano is a traditional game that is similar to volleyball, in which the two hard balls made from pandanus leaves are volleyed at great speed with the team members trying to stop the ball hitting the ground.[310] Traditional sports in the late 19th century were foot racing, lance throwing, quarterstaff fencing and wrestling, although the Christian missionaries disapproved of these activities.[311]
The popular sports in Tuvalu include kilikiti, Te ano, association football, futsal, volleyball, handball, basketball and rugby sevens. Tuvalu has sports organisations for athletics, badminton, tennis, table tennis, volleyball, football, basketball, rugby union, weightlifting and powerlifting. At the 2013 Pacific Mini Games, Tuau Lapua Lapua won Tuvalu's first gold medal in an international competition in the weightlifting 62 kilogram male snatch. (He also won bronze in the clean and jerk, and obtained the silver medal overall for the combined event.)[312] In 2015, Telupe Iosefa received the first gold medal won by Tuvalu at the Pacific Games in the powerlifting 120 kg male division.[313][314][315]
A major sporting event is the "Independence Day Sports Festival" held annually on 1 October. The most important sports event within the country is arguably the
The
Economy and government services
Economy
From 1996 to 2002, Tuvalu was one of the best-performing Pacific Island economies and achieved an average real gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate of 5.6% per annum. Economic growth slowed after 2002, with GDP growth of 1.5% in 2008. Tuvalu was exposed to rapid rises in world prices of fuel and food in 2008, with the level of inflation peaking at 13.4%.[279] Tuvalu has the smallest GDP of any sovereign nation in the world.[323]
Tuvalu joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF) on 24 June 2010.[324] The IMP 2010 Report on Tuvalu estimates that Tuvalu experienced zero growth in its 2010 GDP, after the economy contracted by about 2% in 2009.[279] On 5 August 2012, the executive board of the IMF concluded the Article IV consultation with Tuvalu, and assessed the economy of Tuvalu: "A slow recovery is underway in Tuvalu, but there are important risks. GDP grew in 2011 for the first time since the global financial crisis, led by the private retail sector and education spending."[325] The IMF 2014 Country Report noted that real GDP growth in Tuvalu had been volatile averaging only 1 per cent in the past decade. The 2014 Country Report describes economic growth prospects as generally positive as the result of large revenues from fishing licences, together with substantial foreign aid.[326] In 2023, the IMF Article IV consultation with Tuvalu concluded that a successful vaccination strategy allowed Tuvalu to lift coronavirus disease (COVID) containment measures at the end of 2022. However, the economic cost of the pandemic was significant, with real gross domestic product growth falling from 13.8% in 2019 to -4.3 percent in 2020, although it recovered to 1.8% in 2021.[327] Inflation rose to 11.5% in 2022, but inflation is project to fall to 2.8% by 2028.[327]
The increase in inflation in 2022 was due to the rapid rise in the cost of food resulting from a drought that affected food production and from rising global food prices, following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine (food imports represent 19 percent of Tuvalu’s GDP, while agriculture makes up for only 10 percent of GDP).[327]
The government is the primary provider of medical services through
Tuvaluans are well known for their seafaring skills, with the Tuvalu Maritime Training Institute on Amatuku motu (island), Funafuti, providing training to approximately 120 marine cadets each year so that they have the skills necessary for employment as seafarers on merchant shipping. The Tuvalu Overseas Seamen's Union (TOSU) is the only registered trade union in Tuvalu. It represents workers on foreign ships. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) estimates that 800 Tuvaluan men are trained, certified and active as seafarers. The ADB estimates that, at any one time, about 15% of the adult male population works abroad as seafarers.[329] Job opportunities also exist as observers on tuna boats where the role is to monitor compliance with the boat's tuna fishing licence.[330]
Government revenues largely come from sales of fishing licences, income from the
The Tuvalu Trust Fund (TTF) was established in 1987 by the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.[43] The TTF is a sovereign wealth fund that is owned by Tuvalu but is administered by an international Board and the government of Tuvalu. When the performance of the TTF exceeds its operating target each year, excess funds are transferred to the Consolidated Investment Fund (CIF), and can be freely drawn upon by the Tuvaluan government to finance budgetary expenditures.[335] In 2022, the value of the Tuvalu Trust Fund is approximately $190 million.[335] In 2021 the market value of the TTF rose by 12 percent to its highest level on record (261 percent of GDP). However, the volatility in global equity markets in 2022 resulted in the TTF’s value falling by 7 percent as compared to the end of 2021.[335]
Financial support to Tuvalu is also provided by Japan, South Korea and the European Union. Australia and New Zealand continue to contribute capital to the TTF, and provide other forms of development assistance.[328][43]
The
The United Nations designates Tuvalu as a
Tourism
Due to the country's remoteness, tourism is not significant. Visitors totalled 1,684 in 2010: 65% were on business, development officials or technical consultants, 20% were tourists (360 people), and 11% were expatriates returning to visit family.[186] In 2016, the number of visitors had increased to 2,000.[340]
The main island of Funafuti is the focus of travellers, since the only airport in Tuvalu is the Funafuti International Airport and Funafuti is the only island that has hotel facilities.[341] However, there are no tour guides, tour operators or organised activities and no cruise ships visit.[342] Ecotourism is a motivation of travellers to Tuvalu. The Funafuti Conservation Area consists of 12.74 square miles (33.00 square kilometres) of ocean, reef, lagoon, channel and six uninhabited islets.
The outer atolls can be visited on the two passenger-cargo ships, Nivaga III and Manú Folau, which provide round-trip visits to the outer islands every three or four weeks. There is guesthouse accommodation on many of the outer islands.
Telecommunications and media
The Tuvalu Media Department of the Government of Tuvalu operates Radio Tuvalu which broadcasts from Funafuti.[343] In 2011, the Japanese government provided financial support to construct a new AM broadcast studio. The installation of upgraded transmission equipment allows Radio Tuvalu to be heard on all nine islands of Tuvalu. The new AM radio transmitter on Funafuti replaced the FM radio service to the outer islands and freed up satellite bandwidth for mobile services.[186] Fenui – news from Tuvalu is a free digital publication of the Tuvalu Media Department that is emailed to subscribers and operates a Facebook page, which publishes news about government activities and news about Tuvaluan events.
The Tuvalu Telecommunications Corporation (TTC), a state-owned enterprise, provides fixed line telephone communications to subscribers on each island, mobile phone services on Funafuti, Vaitupu and Nukulaelae and is a distributor of the Fiji Television service (Sky Pacific satellite television service).[186]
As of February 2022, the delivered satellite capacity into Tuvalu was a combined capacity of 510mbps split between Agility Beyond Space (ABS)[345] and Kacific Broadband Satellites. The average download of data per device is about 9GB/user/month, with 95% of devices in use being 4G/ LTE capable.[346] Also, Tuvalu has 5,915 active broadband users (the largest base of users is on Funafuti), with dedicated satellite and hotspot users on the outer islands, each of which has 3 to 5 hotspots.[346]
Transport
There are limited transport services in Tuvalu. There are about eight kilometres (5 miles) of roads.[241] The streets of Funafuti were paved in mid-2002, but other roads are unpaved. Tuvalu does not have any railroads.
Funafuti is the only port, but there is a deep-water berth in the lagoon at Nukufetau. Landing passengers and cargo on some of the islands is difficult as the reef islands do not have a lagoon that shipping can enter or the atoll's lagoon does not have navigatible channels. Landing on these islands involves passengers and cargo being transferred from ships to workboats for delivery to landing points on the islands. In May 2023 the Australian Infrastructure Financing Facility for the Pacific (AIFFP) approved the payment of AUD$21.4m (US$15m) for a AUD$120.6m (USD$84.4m) Asian Development Bank (ADB) led fund to finance the construction of passenger and cargo facilities on Pacific Islands. The AIFFP funds, together with AUD$11m (USD$7.2m) of in-kind contribution from the Government of Tuvalu, are allocated to complete a project at Niutao and to implement a project at Nui, to construct workboat harbors, including constructing a navigation channel, boat ramp, passenger terminal, cargo shed, as well as shoreline reclamation.[347][348]
The
In 2015, the Nivaga III was donated by the government of Japan; it replaced the Nivaga II, which had been in service in Tuvalu from 1989.[349][350]
In 2020, the government of Tuvalu purchased a landing barge, which is intended to transport of dangerous goods and building material from the capital to the outer islands. The barge was named Moeiteava. The Government of Taiwan provided financial assistance.[351]
The Tuvalu Fisheries Department operates two vessels for carrying out its activities within the country's exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and outer islands. These are the 18-metre Manaui and 32-metre Tala Moana. The vessels are used for fisheries research, deploying fish aggregating devices (FADs), visiting outer islands for monitoring and consultations, including to implement Tuvalu's
The only international airport in Tuvalu is Funafuti International Airport. Fiji Airways operates services to Funafuti International Airport.[357] Fiji Airways operates services 3 times a week (Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday) between Suva and Funafuti with ATR 72-600 aircraft, which has a capacity of up to 72 passengers. Beginning 18 March 2024, flights will also be operated once a week (Monday) between Nadi and Funafuti.[358]
Filmography and bibliography
Filmography
Documentary films about Tuvalu:
- Tu Toko Tasi (Stand by Yourself) (2000) Conrad Mill, a Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) production.[359]
- Paradise Domain – Tuvalu (Director: Joost De Haas, Bullfrog Films/TVE 2001) 25:52 minutes – YouTube video.[115]
- Tuvalu island tales (A Tale of two Islands) (Director: Michel Lippitsch) 34 minutes – YouTube video.
- The Disappearing of Tuvalu: Trouble in Paradise (2004) by Christopher Horner and Gilliane Le Gallic.[360]
- Paradise Drowned: Tuvalu, the Disappearing Nation (2004) Written and produced by Wayne Tourell. Directed by Mike O'Connor, Savana Jones-Middleton and Wayne Tourell.[361]
- Going Under (2004) by Franny Armstrong, Spanner Films.[115]
- Before the Flood: Tuvalu (2005) by Paul Lindsay (Storyville/BBC Four).[115]
- Time and Tide (2005) by Julie Bayer and Josh Salzman, Wavecrest Films.[362]
- Tuvalu: That Sinking Feeling (2005) by Elizabeth Pollock from PBS Rough Cut
- Atlantis Approaching (2006) by Elizabeth Pollock, Blue Marble Productions.[363]
- King Tide | The Sinking of Tuvalu (2007) by Juriaan Booij.[364]
- Tuvalu (Director: Aaron Smith, 'Hungry Beast' program, ABC June 2011) 6:40 minutes – YouTube video.
- Tuvalu: Renewable Energy in the Pacific Islands Series (2012) a production of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and SPREP 10 minutes – YouTube video.
- Mission Tuvalu (Missie Tuvalu) (2013) feature documentary directed by Jeroen van den Kroonenberg.[365]
- ThuleTuvalu (2014) by Matthias von Gunten, HesseGreutert Film/OdysseyFilm.[366]
Bibliography
- Bibliography of Tuvalu Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine
See also
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{{cite web}}
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3. Tuvalu population https://datacommons.org/place?dcid=country/TUV&mprop=count&popt=Person&hl=en
Further reading
- Lonely Planet Guide: South Pacific & Micronesia, by various.ISBN 978-1786572189
- Chalkley, John, (1999) Vaitupu: Two Years on a Remote Polynesian Atoll, Matuku Publications. ISBN 0953487601
- Ells, Philip, (2008) Where the Hell Is Tuvalu? Virgin Books. ISBN 978-0753511305
Biodiversity
- ISBN 9789829030047
- Thaman, R.R. (May 1992). "Batiri Kei Baravi: The Ethnobotany of Pacific Island Coastal Plants" (PDF). Atoll Research Bulletin. 361. National Museum of Natural History, . Retrieved 8 February 2014.
- Thaman, R.R. (October 2016). "The Flora of Tuvalu: Lakau Mo Mouku o Tuvalu". Atoll Research Bulletin (611): xii-129. S2CID 89181901.
- Randy Thaman, Feagaiga Penivao, Faoliu Teakau, Semese Alefaio, Lamese Saamu, Moe Saitala, Mataio Tekinene and Mile Fonua (2017). "Report on the 2016 Funafuti Community-Based Ridge-To-Reef (R2R)" (PDF). Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Conservation Status of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (BES) In Tuvalu. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Culture, customs and traditions
- Sandra Iren (2013), Barkås, Alofa – Expressions of Love: Change and Continuity in Tuvalu
- Brady, Ivan (1972). "Kinship Reciprocity in the Ellice Islands", Journal of the Polynesian Society 81:3, 290–316
- Brady, Ivan, (1974). "Land Tenure in the Ellice Islands", in Henry P. Lundsaarde (ed). Land Tenure in Oceania, Honolulu, University Press of Hawaii. ISBN 9780824803216
- Chambers, Keith & Anne Chambers, (January 2001) Unity of Heart: Culture and Change in a Polynesian Atoll Society, Waveland Pr Inc. ISBN 978-1577661665
- Corlew, Laura Kati (May 2012). The Cultural Impacts of Climate Change (PDF) (PhD). University of Hawaii. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
- Kennedy, Donald Gilbert, Field Notes on the Culture of Vaitupu, Ellice Islands (1931): Thomas Avery & Sons, New Plymouth, N.Z.
- Kennedy, Donald Gilbert, Land tenure in the Ellice Islands, Journal of the Polynesian Society., Vol. 64, no. 4 (Dec. 1953):348–358.
- Koch, Gerd, (1961) Die Materielle Kulture der Ellice-Inseln, Berlin: Museum fur Volkerkunde; The English translation by Guy Slatter, was published as The Material Culture of Tuvalu, University of the South Pacific in Suva (1981) ASIN B0000EE805.
History
- Hedley, Charles (1896). "General Account of the Atoll of Funafuti" (PDF). Australian Museum Memoir. 3 (2): 1–72. .
- Tuvalu: A History (1983) Isala, Tito and Laracy, Hugh (eds.), Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific and Government of Tuvalu.
- Bedford, R., Macdonald, B., & Munro, D., (1980) Population Estimates for Kiribati and Tuvalu, 1850–1900: Review and Speculation, Journal of the Polynesian Society, 89, 199–246.
- Bollard, AE., (1981) The financial adventures of J. C. Godeffroy and Son in the Pacific, Journal of Pacific History, 16: 3–19.
- Firth, S., (1973) German Firms in the Western Pacific Islands, 1857–1914, Journal of Pacific History, 8: 10–28.
- Geddes, W. H., Chambers, A., Sewell, B., Lawrence, R., & Watters, R. (1982) Islands on the Line, team report. Atoll economy: Social change in Kiribati and Tuvalu, No. 1, Canberra: Australian National University, Development Studies Centre.
- Goodall, N. (1954) A history of the London Missionary Society 1895–1945, London: Oxford University Press.
- Macdonald, Barrie, (1971) Local Government in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands 1892–1969 – part 1, Journal of Administration Overseas, 10, 280–293.
- Macdonald, Barrie, (1972) Local Government in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands 1892–1969 – part 2, Journal of Administration Overseas, 11, 11–27.
- Macdonald, Barrie, (2001) Cinderellas of the Empire: Towards a History of Kiribati and Tuvalu, Institute of Pacific Studies, Press, first published 1982).
- Munro, D, Firth, S., (1986) Towards Colonial Protectorates: The Case of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, Australian Journal of Politics and History, 32: 63–71.
- Maude, H. E., (1949) The Co-operative Movement in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands (Technical Paper No. 1), South Pacific Commission, Sydney.
- Suamalie N.T. Iosefa, Doug Munro, Niko Besnier, (1991) Tala O Niuoku, Te: The German Plantation on Nukulaelae Atoll 1865–1890, Published by the Institute of Pacific Studies. ISBN 9820200733.
- Pulekai A. Sogivalu, (1992) A Brief History of Niutao, Published by the Institute of Pacific Studies. ISBN 982020058X.
Language
- Vaiaso ote Gana, Tuvalu Language Week Education Resource 2016 (New Zealand Ministry for Pacific Peoples) Archived 7 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Besnier, Niko, (1995) Literacy, Emotion and Authority: Reading and Writing on a Polynesian Atoll, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521485395
- Besnier, Niko, (2000) Tuvaluan: A Polynesian Language of the Central Pacific. (Descriptive Grammars) Routledge ISBN 978-0415024563.
- Jackson, Geoff W. & Jenny Jackson, (1999) An Introduction to Tuvaluan. ISBN 978-9829027023.
- Jackson, Geoff W., (1994) Te Tikisionale O Te Gana Tuvalu, A Tuvaluan-English Dictionary, Suva, Fiji, Oceania Printers. ASIN: B0006F7FNY
- Kennedy, Donald Gilbert, Te ngangana a te Tuvalu – Handbook on the language of the Ellice Islands (1946) Websdale, Shoosmith, Sydney N.S.W.
Music and dance
- Christensen, Dieter, (1964) Old Musical Styles in the Ellice Islands, Western Polynesia, Ethnomusicology, 8:1, 34–40.
- Christensen, Dieter and Gerd Koch, (1964) Die Musik der Ellice-Inseln, Berlin: Museum fur Volkerkunde.
- ISBN 978-9820203143
External links
- Te Kakeega III – National Strategy for Sustainable Development 2016–2020
- Te Kete – National Strategy for Sustainable Development 2021–2030
- Tuvalu from UCB Libraries GovPubs
- Tuvalu at Curlie
- Tuvalu profile from the BBC News
- tuvaluparadise.tv website Archived 7 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- Tuvalu. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Wikimedia Atlas of Tuvalu