User:Fang 23/Paleolithic

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The Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek: παλαιός, palaios, "

Epipaleolithic
.

During the Paleolithic humans were grouped together in small scale societies such as

Homo sapiens sapiens) during the Paleolithic era.[7] During the end of the Paleolithic specifically the Middle and or Upper Paleolithic humans began to produce the earliest works of art and engage in religious and spiritual behavior such as burial and ritual.[8][9][10][6]
The climate during the Paleolithic consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods in which the climate periodically fluctuated between warm and cool temperatures.

Chronology

The three-age system divides human technological prehistory into three periods: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. The modern periodization of the Stone Age stretches from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic in the following scheme (crossing an epoch boundary on the geologic time scale):

Traditionally, the Paleolithic is divided into three (somewhat overlapping) periods: the Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic, and the Upper Paleolithic. The three ages mark technological and cultural advances in different human communities.

Age Period Tools Economy Dwelling Sites Society Religion
Stone age
 Paleolithic Handmade tools and objects found in nature –
handaxe, scraper, spear, Bow and arrow, harpoon, needle, scratch awl
Hunting and gathering
 Mobile lifestyle – caves, huts, tooth or skin hovels, mostly by rivers and lakes A band of edible-plant gatherers and hunters (25-100 people) Evidence for belief in the afterlife first appears in the
servants appear in the prehistory
.
Mesolithic (known as the Epipalaeolithic in areas with no noticeable trend towards the development of agricultural lifestyles) Handmade tools and objects found in nature –
bow and arrow, fish – basket, boats
 Tribes and Bands
Neolithic Handmade tools and objects found in nature –
reaping-hook, grain pourer, barley, loom, earthenware (pottery) and weapons
 agriculture Gathering, hunting, fishing and domestication Farmsteads during the Neolithic and the Bronze age Formation of cities during the Bronze age Tribes and the formation of
cheifdoms
in some Neolithic societies at the end of this period' States and cheifdoms during the Bronze age
Bronze Age Copper and bronze tools, potter's wheel Agriculture – cattle – breeding, agriculture, craft, trade
Iron Age Iron tools

Human evolution

Homo sapiens
, dates to sometime between 500,000 to 400,000 BC.
Main article: Human evolution

Human evolution is the part of biological

australopithecines
.

Human evolution during the Paleolithic

The evolutionary history of humankind is often traced back by paleoanthropologists to 5 or 7 million years ago prior to the start of the Paleolithic when our closest hominid ancestors diverged from the shared common ancestor of humans,

Sahelanthropus tchadensis and Australopithecus) began to develop bipedalism (though bipedalism was not fully developed until Homo erectus/Homo ergaster first appeared in the human fossil record) and eventually gave rise to the earliest member of the genus homo, Homo habilis, around 2.6 million years ago. Numerous explanations have been proposed by anthropologists and biologists to explain why bipedalism evolved in humans including the provisioning model, which states that bipedalism was an adaptation to a monogamous society; the postural feeding hypothesis, which proposes that bipedalism was invented to help obtain food; and the thermoregulatory model, which claims that human bipedalism arose to reduce body heat.[14]

One current view of the temporal and geographical distribution of hominid populations. Other interpretations differ mainly in the taxonomy and geographical distribution of hominid species.

The earliest member of the genus homo, Homo habilis, appeared around 2.6 million years ago and was responsible for the beginning of the Paleolithic era and the creation of the Oldowan tool case. Most experts assume the intelligence and social organization of H. habilis were more sophisticated than typical australopithecines or chimpanzees. Homo habilis coexisted with other Homo-like bipedal primates, such as Paranthropus boisei, some of which prospered for many millennia. However, H. habilis, possibly because of its early tool innovation and a less specialized diet, became the precursor of an entire line of new species, whereas Paranthropus boisei and its robust relatives disappeared from the fossil record. Homo habilis eventually became Homo ergaster.

Homo ergaster was the first hominid to stand fully upright and migrate out of Africa (c. 2 million years ago[15][16]). Homo ergaster may also have been the first hominid to control fire. Homo ergaster is often considered to be the primogenitor of the later species Homo erectus, though H. ergaster is sometimes categorized as a subspecies of Homo erectus. Homo erectus (along with Homo ergaster) was probably the first early human species to fit squarely into the category of a hunter-gatherer society. Homo erectus was the first hominid certain to have used controlled fire (c. 300,000 BP). Earlier (disputed) evidence for controlled fire also exists at sites such as the Zhoukoudian Caves in China, which contain possible evidence for controlled fire as early as 1.5 million years ago.[17] It is unknown who was the ancestor of Homo rhodesiensis, the primitive hominid species that humans are likely to have descended from, though many current paleoanthropologists postulate that Homo rhodesiensis was the same species as Homo heidelbergensis, also the immediate ancestor of the Neanderthals.

During the Paleolithic more primitive humans or societies such as the

Neanderthals and Homo erectus[18] for instance may have interbred with modern humans (Homo sapiens) in Europe and Asia.[19]

Although the first members of the species Homo sapiens, the

Upper Paleolithic revolution and some scientists suggest that this change may have been sudden and was likely to have occurred within a timespan of roughly 5,000 or 10,000 years, though others such as Robert G. Bednarik suggest that behavioral modernity may have developed gradually over the course of tens or even hundreds of thousands of years as the earliest evidence of behavioral modernity including artistic expression (such as ochre being used as body paint and early rock art) exists prior to the Upper Paleolithic during the Middle Paleolithic however, it must also be noted that undisputed evidence of behavioral modernity only becomes common during the following Upper Paleolithic period.[12]

The driving force behind human evolution during the Paleolithic is a matter of significant debate amongst anthropologists. The

saber-toothed cat, Dinofelis, and hyenas which apparently preyed on the hominid Homo habilis.[20] It is also currently understood by anthropologists that even Middle Paleolithic Neanderthals, who hunted large game just as frequently and successfully as modern Upper Paleolithic humans, intermittently (and sometimes unsuccessfully) competed with carnivores such as hyenas for shelter in caves and food.[21]

Several contending theories also exist including the somewhat related

Homo that are not seen in other primates.[24] However, like the killer ape theory, it is not widely accepted by the scientific community.[24][25][26] Although the modern Aquatic ape hypothesis was only developed during the 20th century the concept of humankind arising from an aquatic or semi-aquatic environment is much more ancient, the theories of the Ancient Greek philosopher Anaximander who is widely considered to be evolution's most ancient proponent bare some similarity with the contemporary Aquatic ape hypothesis as he theorized that humans evolved from fish or fish like animals. Richard Wrangham of Harvard University argues that cooking of plant foods may have triggered brain expansion by allowing complex carbohydrates in starchy foods to become more digestible and in effect allow humans to absorb more calories.[27][28][29]

Simplified human genealogy

The timeline below shows a simplified genealogy of Paleolithic humanity, although other ideas of human genealogy exist for the same period:[30]

HolocenePleistocenePlioceneHomo soloensisHomo erectusHomo neanderthalensisHomo heidelbergensisHomo antecessorHomo sapiensHomo rhodesiensisHomo ergasterHomo habilisAustralopithecus

Timeline scale is in thousands of years.

Paleogeography and climate

Main articles: Pleistocene § Paleogeography and climate, Pliocene § Climate, and Pliocene § Paleogeography
The Paleolithic climate consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods.

The climate of the Paleolithic Period spanned two geologic epochs known as the Pliocene and the Pleistocene. Both of these periods experienced important geographic and climatic changes that affected human Paleolithic societies such as the beginning and the end of the world wide ice age that occurred during the Pleistocene. These changes are described below in greater depth.

During the Pliocene Continents continued to

plates upon which they sit probably having moved no more than 100 km relative to each other since the beginning of the period.[32]

Climates during the Pliocene became cooler and drier, and seasonal, similar to modern climates.

Pacific ocean beds (Van Andel 1994 p. 226). Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch. The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas.[31]

The

parallel
in some places. Four major glacial events have been identified, as well as many minor intervening events. A major event is a general glacial excursion, termed a "glacial." Glacials are separated by "interglacials." During a glacial, the glacier experiences minor advances and retreats. The minor excursion is a "stadial"; times between stadials are "interstadials." Each glacial advance tied up huge volumes of water in continental ice sheets 1500–3000 m thick, resulting in temporary sea level drops of 100 m or more over the entire surface of the Earth. During interglacial times, such as at present, drowned coastlines were common, mitigated by isostatic or other emergent motion of some regions.

The effects of glaciation were global.

Paleo-Indians such as the Clovis culture
from directly crossing Beringa to reach the Americas.

According to

Pacific weakening or heading east, warm air rising near Peru, warm water spreading from the west Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the east Pacific, and other El Niño markers.[33]

At the end of the Paleolithic era the both the ice age and the Pleistocene epoch ended and the worlds climate became warmer. The climate change at the end of the Pleistocene may have caused or contributed to the extinction of the

Pleistocene megafauna though it is also possible that the late Pleistocene extinctions were (at least in part) caused by other factors such as disease and over hunting by humans.[34]


Currently agreed upon classifications as Paleolithic geoclimatic episodes
Age
(before)		 America Atlantic Europe Maghreb Mediterranean Europe Central Europe
10,000 years Flandrian interglacial Flandriense Mellahiense Versiliense Flandrian interglacial
80,000 years Wisconsin Devensiense Regresión Regresión Wisconsin glaciation
140,000 years Sangamoniense Ipswichiense Ouljiense Tirreniense II y III
Eemian interglacial
200,000 years Illinois Wolstoniense Regresión Regresión
Wolstonian glaciation
450,000 years Yarmouthiense Hoxniense Anfatiense Tirreniense I
Hoxnian interglacial
580,000 years Kansas Angliense Regresión Regresión Kansan glaciation
750,000 years Aftoniense Cromeriense Maarifiense Siciliense
Cromerian interglacial
1,100,000 years Nebraska Beestoniense Regresión Regresión Beestonian stage
1,400,000 years interglaciar Ludhamiense Messaudiense Calabriense Donau-Günz

Way of life

Nice, France) and dated to the lower Paleolithic (c.
400,000 BC).

Due to a lack of written records from this time period, nearly all of our knowledge of Paleolithic humans culture and way of life comes from archeology and or comparative ethnography. The economy of a typical Paleolithic society was a hunter-gatherer economy.[35] Paleolithic humans hunted wild animals for meat and gathered food, firewood, and materials for their tools, clothes, or shelters.[36][35] The human population density in the Paleolithic was very small and numbered around only one person per square mile.[6] The low population density during the Paleolithic was most likely due to low body fat, Infanticide, women regularly engaging in intense endurance exercise,[37] late weaning of infants and a nomadic lifestyle.[6] Like contemporary hunter-gatherers Paleolithic humans enjoyed an abundance of leisure time unparalleled in both Neolithic farming societies and modern industrial societies.[35][38] At the end of the Paleolithic specifically the Middle and or Upper Paleolithic humans began to produce works of art such as cave paintings, rock art and jewelry and began to engage in religious behavior such as burial and ritual.[39]


Technology

bifaces
.
Picture of a stone ball from a set of Paleolithic bolas.

During this time period people made tools of stone, bone, and wood.[35] The most ancient Paleolithic stone tool industry the Oldowan was developed by the earliest members of the genus Homo such as Homo habilis around 2.6 million years ago.[40] and contained tools such as choppers, burins and awls though it completely disappeared around 250,000 years ago and was followed by the more complex Acheulean industry which was first conceived by Homo ergaster around 1.65 million years ago.[41] The most recent Lower Paleolithic (Acheulean) implements vanished from the archeological record around 50,000 years ago.

Lower Paleolithic humans are known to have used a variety of stone tools, including hand axes, which were likely used as cutting/chopping tools, digging implements, animal traps, or possibly in courting behaviour. Choppers and scrappers were most likely used for the purpose of skinning and butchering scavenged animals and sharp ended sticks were often procured for the purpose of digging up edible roots. Early hominids presumably have been using wooden spears as early as 5 million years ago to hunt small animals, much like our close relatives the common chimpanzee have recently been observed doing in Senegal, Africa.[42] Lower Paleolithic humans additionally known to have constructed shelters such as the possible wood hut at Terra Amata. Although fire was used by the Lower Paleolithic hominid Homo erectus/Homo ergaster as early as 300,000 or 1.5 million years ago and possibly even earlier by the early Lower Paleolithic (Oldowan) hominid Homo habilis and/or by robust australopithecines such as Paranthropus[6] the use of fire only became common in the societies of the following Middle Stone Age/Middle Paleolithic Period.[1]

The lower Paleolithic

hominid Homo erectus possibly invented rafts (c. 800,000 or 840,000 BP) to travel over large bodies of water which may have allowed a group of Homo erectus to reach the island of Flores and evolve into the small hominid Homo floresiensis. However, it must also be noted that this hypothesis is disputed within the anthropological community.[43][44][45] The possible use of rafts during the Lower Paleolithic may indicate that Lower Paleolithic societies were more advanced than previously believed and may have even spoken an early form of modern language.[46] Supplementary evidence from Neanderthal and Modern human sites located around the Mediterranean sea such as Coa de sa Multa (c.300.000 BCE) has also indicated that both Middle and Upper Paleolithic humans used rafts to travel over large bodies of water (I.e. the Mediterranean sea) for the purpose of colonizing other bodies of land.[47] [12]

Around 200,000 BP

modern humans have done[50] and Neanderthals may have likewise hunted with projectile weapons.[51]

During the end of the Paleolithic (The late

spear thrower, the bow and arrow (c. 30,000 BP) and the creation of the world's oldest example of ceramic art, the Venus of Dolní Věstonice (c. 29,000–25,000 BP).[6] Early dogs were also domesticated during the end of the Paleolithic, sometime between 100,000 BP[53] and 14,000 BP[54], (presumably) to aid in hunting.[54] Archeological evidence from the Dordogne region of France demonstrates that members of the European early Upper Paleolithic culture known as the Aurignacian were the first people to use calendars (c. 30,000 BP). This early calendar was a lunar calendar that was used to document the phases of the moon. Genuine solar calendars did not appear until the following Neolithic period.[55] It is almost certain that Upper Paleolithic cultures were capable of precisely timing the migration of game animals such as wild horses and deer.[56] Upper Paleolithic humans developed this ability to become more efficient hunters.[57]

Social organization

Humans may have partook in long distance trade between bands for rare commodities and raw materials (such as stone needed for making tools) as early as 120,000 years ago in Middle Paleolithic.

The social organization of the earliest Paleolithic (Lower Paleolithic) societies remains largely unknown to scientists though Lower Paleolithic hominids such as Homo habilis and Homo erectus are likely to have had more complex social structures than chimpanzee societies.[58] Late Oldowan/Early Acheulean humans such as Homo ergaster/Homo erectus may have been the first people to invent central campsites, or home bases and incorporate them into their foraging and hunting strategies like contemporary hunter-gatherers possibly as early as 1.7 million years ago,[59] however the earliest solid evidence for the existence of home bases/central campsites (hearths and shelters) amongst humans only dates back to 500,000 years ago.[60]

Similarity it is disputed amongst scientists whether Lower Paleolithic humans were largely monogamous or polygamous

Modern humans who are less polygamous than other primates which would provide evidence that Lower Paleolithic humans had a largely polygamous lifestyle because species which have the most pronounced Sexual dimorphism tend to be more likely to be polygamous.[61]

For most of the Lower Paleolithic human societies were probably more hierarchical than their Middle and Upper Paleolithic decedents and probably were not grouped into bands,[62] though during the end of the Lower Paleolithic the latest populations of the Hominid Homo erectus began living in small scale (possibly egalitarian) bands similar to both Middle and Upper Paleolithic societies and modern hunter gatherers.[62]

Middle and Upper Paleolithic humans like Lower Paleolithic humans lived without states and organized governments and instead unlike both Lower Paleolithic humans and complex agricultural Civilizations were grouped in

collectivistic and individuals were subordinate to the band as a whole.[35][66] Both Neanderthals and modern humans took care of the elderly members of their societies during the Middle and Upper Paleolithic.[67]


Like the societies of our closest existent relative the

consensus decision making rather than by appointing permanent rulers such as chiefs, kings and queens.[36][71] Theories to explain the apparent egalitarianism of Paleolithic societies have arisen, notably the Marxist concept of primitive communism.[72] Christopher Boehm (1999) has hypothesized that egalitarianism may have evolved in Paleolithic societies because of a need to distribute recourses such as food and meat equally to avoid famine and ensure a stable food supply.[62] Raymond C. Kelly speculates that the relative peacefulness of Middle and Upper Paleolithic societies resulted from a low population density, cooperative relationships between groups such as reciprocal exchange of commodities and collaboration on hunting expeditions and lastly because the invention of projectile weapons such as throwing spears provided less incentive for war because they increased the amount of damage that is done to the attacker and decreased the relative amount of territory aggressors could gain.[70]

It has Typically been assumed by anthropologists that women were responsible for gathering wild plants and firewood and men were responsible for hunting and scavenging dead animals amongst Paleolithic humans.

Matrilineal decent patterns were likely to have been more common during the Paleolithic and the Mesolithic than in the following Neolithic period.[80]

Paleolithic Art and Music

The Venus of Willendorf is one of the most famous Venus figurines.

The earliest undisputed evidence of art during the Paleolithic period comes from Middle Paleolithic/Middle Stone Age sites such as Blombos Cave in the form of bracelets,[81] beads,[82] rock art,[63] ochre used as body paint and perhaps in ritual,[63][12] though earlier examples of artistic expression such as the Venus of Tan-Tan and the patterns found on elephant bones from Bilzingsleben in Thuringia may have been produced by Acheulean tool users such as Homo erectus prior to the start of the Middle Paleolithic period.[83]

goddesses, pornographic imagery, apotropaic amulets, used for sympathetic magic and even as self-portraits of women themselves.[12][86]

R. Dale Guthrie[87] has studied not only the most artistic and publicized paintings but also a variety of lower quality art and figurines, and he identifies a wide range of skill and ages among the artists. He also points that the main themes in the paintings and other artifacts (powerful beasts, risky hunting scenes and the over-sexual representation of women in the Venus figurines) are to be expected in the fantasies of adolescent males during the Upper Paleolithic.

Additionally

archeological designation suggests that music first arose (amongst humans) when stone tools first began to be used by hominids. The noises
produced by work such as pounding seed and roots into meal is a likely source of rhythm created by early humans.

Religion and beliefs

Picture of a half-human, half-animal being in a Paleolithic cave painting in Dordogne. France. Archeologists believe that cave paintings of half-human, half-animal beings may be evidence for early shamanic practices during the Paleolithic.

A controversial scholar of prehistoric religion and anthropology James Harrod has recently proposed that religion and spirituality (and art) may have first arose in Pre-Paleolithic chimpanzee[90] and or Early Lower Paleolithic (Oldowan) societies,[91] however the established anthropological view holds that it is more probable that humankind first developed religious and spiritual beliefs during the Middle Paleolithic or Upper Paleolithic.[92]

It is likely that Middle Paleolithic cultures believed in an afterlife as evidenced by Middle Paleolithic humans use of burials at sites such as

H. heidelbergensis sites in Atapuerca humans may have begun burying their dead much earlier during the late Lower Paleolithic
but this theory is widely questioned in the scientific community.

Likewise some scientists have proposed that Middle Paleolithic societies such as Neanderthal societies may also have practiced the earliest form of

Tsodilo Hills and may have inherited their worship of the python from their distant Middle Paleolithic ancestors.[10]

The existence of anthropomorphic images and half-human, half-animal images in the Upper Paleolithic period may further indicate that

Animistic spirits.[96]

Religion was often apotropaic; specifically, it involved sympathetic magic.

earth goddess similar to Gaia.[97] Additionally, they have described by James Harrod as representative of female (and male) shamanistic spiritual transformation processes.[98]

Diet and nutrition

legumes, were rarely eaten by Paleolithic humans.[99]

The diet of the Paleolithic hunting and gathering peoples consisted primarily of animal flesh, fruits, and vegetables.[100] There is insufficient data to determine with any certainty the relative proportions of plant and animal foods in the diets of Paleolithic humans.[101] According to some anthropologists and many advocates of the Paleolithic diet, Paleolithic hunter-gatherers consumed a significant amount of meat and possibly obtained the majority of their food from hunting.[102] Competing theories suggest that Paleolithic humans may have consumed a plant-based diet in general,[103][36][6][73][104] or that hunting and gathering possibly contributed equally their diet.[105]

Overall they experienced less famine and malnutrition than the Neolithic farming tribes that followed them. This was due in part to the fact that Paleolithic hunter-gatherers had access to a wider variety of plants and other foods than Neolithic farmers did, which allowed Paleolithic hunter-gathers to have a more nutritious diet along with a decreased risk of famine. Many of the famines experienced by Neolithic (and some modern) farmers were caused or amplified by their dependence on a small number of crops.[106][107][108] Furthermore, it is also unlikely that Paleolithic hunter-gatherers were affected by modern diseases of affluence such as Type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease and cerebrovascular disease.[109]

Large seeded

Bananas and Tubers in paticular may have been cultivated as early as 25,000 BP in Southeast Asia.[114] Humans also probably consumed hallucinogenic plants during the Paleolithic period.[6]

During the Upper Paleolithic people enjoyed a more varied diet than their Middle and Lower Paleolithic predecessors, for example in European Paleolithic sites the

Neanderthals who possessed a largely Middle Paleolithic level of technology gained most of their protein and meat from hunting deer, while later Upper Paleolithic ‘’Homo Sapiens’’ populations appear have had access to a greater variety of protein sources such as birds, small game animals like rabbits and fish. [12]

People during the Middle Paleolithic such as the Neanderthals and Middle Paleolithic Homo sapiens in Africa began to catch shellfish for food as revealed by shellfish cooking in Neanderthal sites in Italy about 110,000 years ago and Middle Paleolithic Homo sapiens sites at Pinnacle Point, in Africa.

chiefdoms
.

Anthropologists such as Tim White suggest that cannibalism was common in human societies prior to the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, based on the large amount of “butchered human" bones found in Neanderthal and other Lower/Middle Paleolithic sites.

ritual post-mortem bone cleaning
, which would coincide with the development of religious practices thought to have occurred during the Upper Paleolithic.

The

Paleolithic-style diet (also known as the paleodiet or the caveman diet) is a modern diet that seeks to replicate the dietary habits of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers.[99]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^
    ISBN 978-3-540-32474-4 (Print) 978-3-540-33761-4 (Online). {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help
    )
  2. ^ "Stone Age," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D.
  3. ISBN 0717201201|'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-000000C6-QINU`"'[[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/0717201201 |0717201201]]]]. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |isbn= at position 1 (help
    )
  4. ^ "Stone Age," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D.
  5. ISBN 0717201201|'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-000000C8-QINU`"'[[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/0717201201 |0717201201]]]]. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |isbn= at position 1 (help
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  6. ^
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  7. ^ "Human Evolution," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Richard B. Potts, B.A., Ph.D.
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  10. ^ a b World's Oldest Ritual Discovered -- Worshipped The Python 70,000 Years Ago The Research Council of Norway (2006, November 30). World's Oldest Ritual Discovered -- Worshipped The Python 70,000 Years Ago. ScienceDaily. Retrieved March 2, 2008, fromhttp://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061130081347.htm
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  20. ^ Hillary Mayell. "Killer Cats Hunted Human Ancestors". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2008-02-15.
  21. ^ Hillary Mayell. "Neandertals, Hyenas Fought for Caves, Food, Study Says". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2008-02-03.
  22. ^ "The Killer Ape is Dead" by Boyce Rensberger
  23. ^ Barbara D. Miller (1993). Sex and Gender Hierarchies. Cambridge University: Cambridge University Press.; p 61
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    doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199907)109:3<341::AID-AJPA5>3.3.CO;2-U. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "MacLarnon1999" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page
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  25. ^ Lowenstein, J.M. (1980). "The Wading Ape-A Watered-Down Version of Human Evolution". Oceans. 17: 3–6. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
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  29. ^ Lambert, Craig (May–June 2004). "The Way We Eat Now". Harvard Magazine.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
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  33. National Geographic Channel
    , Six Degrees Could Change The World, Mark Lynas interview. Retrieved February 14, 2008.
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  35. ^
    ISBN 0133570053. Pages 9-13
  36. ^ a b c d e f Sue Rowland. "Pre-History, Pre-Civilization, and Paleolithic People". Informal Learning - Women's History. Retrieved 2008-03-25. {{cite web}}: External link in |author= (help)
  37. ^ The Consequences of Domestication and Sedentism by Emily Schultz, et al
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  40. ^ Klein, R. (1999). The Human Career. University of Chicago Press.
  41. ^ Scarre, C, 2005, p110
  42. ^ Rick Weiss, "Chimps Observed Making Their Own Weapons", The Washington Post, February 22, 2007
  43. ^ Erectus Ahoy Prehistoric seafaring floats into view
  44. ^ First Mariners Project Photo Gallery 1
  45. ^ First Mariners - National Geographic project 2004
  46. ^ First Mariners Project Photo Gallery 1
  47. ^ First Mariners Project Photo Gallery 1
  48. ^ "Human Evolution," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Richard B. Potts, B.A., Ph.D.
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References

Category:Pleistocene Category:Paleolithic Category:Stone Age

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