User:Punetor i Rregullt5/sandbox/Comparison of cheetahs, jaguars and leopards

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

maneless male lion

Southern lion
A male at Etosha National Park, Namibia
A lioness at Samburu National Reserve, Kenya
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Suborder: Feliformia
Family: Felidae
Subfamily: Pantherinae
Genus: Panthera
Species:
P. leo
Subspecies:
P. l. melanochaita
Trinomial name
Panthera leo melanochaita
(Ch. H. Smith, 1842)
Synonyms[1]

formerly:

  • P. l. bleyenberghi
  • P. l. krugeri
  • P. l. vernayi
  • P. l. massaica
  • P. l. nyanzae

The Southern lion (

regionally extinct in Lesotho, Djibouti and Eritrea.[7] Since the turn of the 21st century, lion populations in intensively managed protected areas in Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe have increased, but declined in East African range countries.[8] They are threatened by loss of habitat and prey base, killing by local people in retaliation for loss of livestock, and in several countries also by trophy hunting.[7]
The
type specimen for P. l. melanochaita was a black-maned lion from the Cape of Good Hope, known as the Cape lion, and consequently, the scientific name was initially meant for it. The lion population in this part of South Africa is extinct.[9]

Taxonomic history

Lions shot in Kenya's Sotik Plains in 1909

type specimen for Panthera leo melanochaita in 1842 using the scientific name Felis (Leo) melanochaitus.[10] It was referred to as the "Southern relative" of the North African lion.[2][3] In the 19th and 20th centuries, several naturalists described specimens from Southern and East Africa and proposed subspecies
, including:

Dispute over the validity of these purported subspecies continued among naturalists and curators of natural history museums until the early 21st century.[9][20][21][22][1] In the 20th century, some authors supported the view of the Cape lion being a distinct subspecies.[17][20][21][23] In 1939, the American zoologist Allen also recognized F. l. bleyenberghi, F. l. krugeri and F. l. vernayi as valid subspecies in Southern Africa, and F. l. hollisteri, F. l. nyanzae and F. l. massaica as valid subspecies in East Africa.[20]

classification proposed by Ellerman and Morrison-Scott, recognizing two subspecies including one in Africa.[26]
In the 1970s, the
Indian ocean.[27][6]
In 2005, the authors of
P. l. leo.[7] In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group reduced the number of valid lion subspecies in Southern and Southeast Africa to one, namely P. l. melanochaita.[5]

Genetic research

Range map including proposed clades and the two subspecies (P. l. leo and P. l. melanochaita) according to genetic research

Since the beginning of the 21st century, several

species comprises two main evolutionary groups, one in Southern and East Africa, and the other in the northern and eastern parts of its historical range; these groups diverged about 50,000 years ago.[28] It was assumed that tropical rainforest and the East African Rift constituted major barriers between the two groups.[6][29][30][31][32] Based on this assessment, the species comprises two recognised subspecies:[5]

The two groups were in contact in

African lions. In 9 of 19 lion samples from Ethiopia, haplotypes of the Central African lion group were found, indicating that the Great Rift Valley was not a complete barrier to gene flow; southeastern Ethiopia is considered a genetic admixture zone between Central and East African lions.[33]
Since 2005, several
Transvaal region in South Africa.[34]
Results of phylogeographic studies support the notion of lions in Southern Africa being genetically close, but distinct from populations in West and North Africa and Asia.[29][35] Based on the analysis of samples from 357 lions from 10 countries, it is thought that lions migrated from Southern Africa to East Africa during the Pleistocene and Holocene eras.[29] A phenotypic and DNA analysis was conducted using samples from 15 captive lions in the Addis Ababa Zoo and from six wild lion populations. Results showed that the captive lions were genetically similar to wild lions from Cameroon and Chad, but with little signs of inbreeding.[36] Lions samples from Gabon's Batéké Plateau National Park and Odzala-Kokoua National Park in Republic of the Congo were found to be related to the Southern lion clade.[37]

Characteristics

Adult male lions with long brown manes in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania
Male with a partially black mane in Narok County, southern Kenya
A mature male lion with an intermediate mane development in Amboseli National Park, Kenya

The lion's fur varies in colour from light buff to dark brown. It has rounded ears and a black tail tuft. Average head-to-body length of male lions is 2.47–2.84 m (97–112 in) with a weight of 148.2–190.9 kg (327–421 lb). The largest East African lion measured 3.33 m (10.9 ft). Females are smaller and less heavy.[38] The Cape lion had a black mane extending beyond the shoulders and under the belly.

Kalahari and eastern Okavango Delta alongside those with a normal tawny colour.[39] Until the late 20th century, mane colour and size was thought to be a distinct subspecific characteristic.[22][9]
In 2002, research in Serengeti National Park revealed that mane darkens with age; its colour and size are influenced by environmental factors like temperature and climate, but also by individual testosterone production, sexual maturity and genetic precondition. Mane length apparently signals fighting success in male–male relationships.[40] An exceptionally heavy male near Mount Kenya weighed 272 kg (600 lb).[41] Male lions killed in East Africa were less heavy than lions killed by hunters in Southern Africa.[42] The captive male lions at Addis Ababa Zoo have darker manes and smaller bodies than those of wild populations.[36]
Timbavati Private Game Reserve in South Africa. Their whitish fur is a rare morph caused by a double recessive allele.[43]

Manes

In the 19th and 20th centuries, lion type specimen were described on the basis of mane size and colour.

mane types. Mane development is related to age: older males have more extensive manes than younger ones; manes continue to grow up to the age of four to five years, long after lions have become sexually mature. Males living in the highlands above 800 m (2,600 ft) elevation develop heavier manes than lions in the more humid and warmer lowlands of eastern and northern Kenya. The latter have thinner manes, or are even completely maneless.[45] Hence, lion manes reflect ambient temperature. The mane colour is also influenced by nutrition and testosterone. Its length is an indicator for age and fighting ability of the lion.[40]
A male lion specimen from Somalia had a short mane.[22] Male lions from the Ethiopian highlands had dark and heavy manes with black tips that extended over the whole throat and chest to the forelegs and behind the shoulders.[15] A few lions observed in the environs of Mount Kilimanjaro had tawny to sandy coloured manes as well.[14] Two male lions observed in the border region between Kenya and Tanzania had moderate tufts of hair on the knee joint, and their manes appeared brushed backwards. They were less cobby with longer legs and less curved backs than lions from other African range countries.[12] Mane colour of males in Kenya vary between tawny, isabelline and light reddish yellow.[44] Tsavo male lions generally do not have a mane, though colouration and thickness vary. There are several hypotheses as to the reasons. One is that mane development is closely tied to climate because its presence significantly reduces heat loss.[46] An alternative explanation is that manelessness is an adaptation to the thorny vegetation of the Tsavo area in which a mane might hinder hunting. Tsavo males may have heightened levels of testosterone, which could also explain their reputation for aggression.[47] The weak or absent mane of Tsavo lions is a feature, which was characteristic also for the extinct lions of ancient Egypt and Nubia. Adult lion males in Egyptian art are usually depicted without a mane, but with a ruff around the neck.[48]

White lion

Main article: White lion

The white lion is a rare

Timbavati Private Game Reserve in eastern South Africa. They were removed from the wild in the 1970s, thus decreasing the white lion gene pool. Nevertheless, 17 births have been recorded in five different prides between 2007 and 2015.[43] White lions are selected for breeding in captivity.[49] Reportedly, they have been bred in camps in South Africa for use as trophies to be killed during canned hunts.[50]

Records

In 1936, a

Mucusso in southern Angola in 1973.[51][52]

Distribution and habitat

The Serengeti and Maasai Mara National Parks are a lion stronghold in East Africa with a stable lion population[53]

The southern lion was originally found from Ethiopia and Uganda in the north to the Cape of Good Hope in the south. Supported by genetic research, the border between the Southern and Northern subspecies runs through Ethiopia. Southeastern Ethiopia is considered a genetic admixture zone between the two groups. Within the Southern lion, genetic research identified three clades. These are the Northeastern, East-Southern and Southwestern subclade.[33] In East and Southern Africa, the population of lions declined in:

  • Somalia since the early 20th century.[54] Intensive poaching since the 1980s and civil unrest posed a threat to lion persistence.[55][56]
  • Uganda to near extinction in the 20th century.[57]
  • Kenya in the 1990s due to poisoning of lions and poaching of lion prey species.[55]
  • Rwanda and Tanzania due to killing of lions during the Rwandan Civil War and ensuing refugee crisis in the 1990s.[55]
  • Malawi and Zambia due to illegal hunting of prey species in protected areas.[55]
  • Botswana due to intensive hunting and conversion of natural habitats for settlements since the early 19th century.[58]
  • Namibia due to massive killing of lions by farmers since at least the 1970s.[59]
  • Natal and Cape Provinces south of the Orange River, where the Cape lion population was eradicated by 1860.[9] A few decades later, lions in the Highveld north of the Orange River were also eradicated.[38] In the Transvaal, lions occurred historically in the Highveld as well, but were restricted to eastern Transvaal's Bushveld by the 1970s.[60]

Contemporary lion distribution and habitat quality in East and Southern Africa was assessed in 2005, and Lion Conservation Units (LCU) mapped.[4] Between 2002 and 2012, educated guesses for size of populations in these LCUs ranged from 33,967 to 32,000 individuals.[55][61]

Range countries Lion Conservation Units Area in km2
Democratic Republic of Congo
Massif D'itombwe, Luama
 8,441[4]
Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda Queen Elizabeth-Virunga 5,583[62]
Uganda
Toro-Semulik, Lake Mburo, Murchison Falls
 4,800[63]
Somalia Arboweerow-Alafuuto 24,527[4]
Somalia, Kenya Bushbush-Arawale 22,540[4]
Kenya Laikipia-Samburu, Meru and Nairobi National Parks 43,706[61]
Kenya, Tanzania
Mara and Tsavo-Mkomazi
 75,068[53]
Tanzania Dar-
Biharamulo, Ruaha-Rungwa, Mpanga-Kipengere, Tarangire, Wami Mbiki-Saadani, Selous
 384,489[53]
Tanzania, Mozambique Niassa 177,559[64]
Mozambique Cahora Bassa, Gilé, Gorongosa-Marromeu 82,715[64]
Mozambique, Zambia Middle Zambezi 64,672[64]
Mozambique, South Africa Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park 150,347[64]
Zambia Liuwa Plains, Sioma Ngwezi, Kafue Sumbu Complex 72,569[61]
Zambia, Malawi North-South Luangwa 72,992[61]
Malawi Kasungu, Nkhotakota 4,187[61]
Zimbabwe Mapungubwe, Bubye 10,033[61]
Botswana, Zimbabwe Okavango-Hwange 99,552[61]
Botswana Xaixai 12,484[4]
Botswana, South Africa Kgalagadi 163,329[61]
Angola Kissama-Mumbondo, Bocoio-Camacuio, Alto Zambeze 393,760[4]
Angola, Namibia Etosha-Kunene 123,800[4]
Namibia Khaudum-Caprivi 92,372[4]

The LCUs Ruaha-Rungwa, Serengeti-Mara, Tsavo-Mkomazi and Selous in East Africa, as well as Luangwa, Kgalagadi, Okavango-Hwange, Mid-Zambezi, Niassa and Greater Limpopo in Southern Africa are currently considered as lion strongholds. These LCUs host more than 500 individuals each, and the population trend is stable there.[61]

Admixture zone to the Northern subspecies

One of the largest lion populations in Ethiopia is found in

Alatash National Park close to the international border with Sudan.[65][66][67]
Other parts of Ethiopia, which still have lions fall into the admixture zone. These are Omo and Bale Mountains National Parks, the ara around the Chew Bahir and Turkana lakes, and the Webi Shabeelle area.[68] In 2009, a small group of less than 23 lions were estimated in Nechisar National Park located in the Great Rift Valley. This small protected area in the Ethiopian Highlands is encroached by local people and their livestock.[69] Lions of northern Uganda have not been analysed genetically[33] and might belong to the Northern subspecies. In northern Uganda, lions are present in Kidepo Valley and Murchison Falls National Parks.[68][61]

Northeastern clade

Kidepo Valley National Park in northern Uganda, where a lion is hiding in the grass. Lions in Uganda are connected to lions in Central Africa, and thus may be mixed between the northern and southern subspecies.[33]

The range of the Northeastern clade outside the admixture zone is confined to Somalia and northern and central Kenya.[33] Already in the 1980s, the lion population in Somalia had greatly declined due to poaching and was restricted to woodlands in the southern part of the country.[56] In northern Kenya, lions had been observed near Kavirondo, near Lake Manyara and in the Tanga Region in the late 19th century.[12] By the 21st century, lion populations in northern Kenya have been fragmented.[70]

Range countries Area used in km2 Estimated no. of individuals
Laikipia-Samburu complex in Kenya 35,511 271[61]
Meru in Kenya 7,365 40[61]
Arawale complex in Kenya and Somalia 22,540 750[61]
Arboweerow-Alafuuto in Somalia 24,527 175[61]
Total XXX XXX

Southern / Eastern clade

Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania
A tree climbing lioness in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda

This is the clade with the largest remaining populations. The range of this clade extends from southern Kenya, southern Uganda and the Virunga area in the Democratic Republic of the Congo southward to the Cape of Good Hope, excluding only the western parts of Southern Africa.[33] The following complexes are considered lion strongholds of the Southern/Eastern clade:[61]

Lions in Queen Elizabeth National Park, which form a contiguous population with lions in Virunga National Park in the northeastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo,[61][62][68] do belong to the Southern Eastern clade.[33] In 2010, the lion population in Uganda was estimated at 408 ± 46 individuals in three protected areas including Queen Elizabeth, Murchison Falls and Kidepo Valley National Parks. Other protected areas in the country probably host less than 10 lions.[71] As of 2006, there were an estimated 675 lions in the Tsavo area, out of the 2,000 total in Kenya.[72] Between 2004 and 2013, lion guardians around Amboseli National Park identified 65 lions in an area of 3,684 km2 (1,422 sq mi).[70] A small population is present in Rwanda's Akagera National Park, estimated at 35 individuals at most in 2004.[68] The lion population in South Africa's former

Eastern Cape Province, including Addo Elephant National Park
.

Range countries Area used in km2 Estimated no. of individuals
Virunga and Queen Elizabeth National Park in CAR and Uganda 5,583 210[61]
Lake Mburo in Uganda 373 3[61]
Luama Hunting Reserve in DRC 5,197 <50[61]
Itombwe Massif
in DRC		 3,244 <50[61]
North West Tansania 4,703 105[61]
Ruaha-Rungwa in Tanzania 195,993 3,779[61]
Mpanga Kipengere in Tanzania 958 14[61]
Swaga Swaga in Tanzania 7,242 102[61]
Serengeti-Mara in Tanzania and Kenya 35,852 3,673[61]
Nairobi in Kenya 830 <30[61]
Tsavo-Mkomazi in Kenya and Tanzania 39,216 880[61]
Tarangire In Tanzania 28,771 731[61]
Wami Mbiki-Saadani in Tanzania 8,787 136[61]
Selous in Tanzania 138,035 7,644[61]
Niassa in Mozambique, Tanzania 177,559 1,573[61]
Liuwa Plains in Zambia 3,866 4[61]
Kafue in Zambia 58,898 386[61]
Nsumbu in Zambia 5,650 <50[61]
Luangwa in Zambia 72,992 574[61]
Kasungu in Malawi 2,341 4[61]
Nkhotakota in Malawi 1,846 18[61]
Kgalagadi in South Africa and Botswana 163,329 800[61]
Mid-Zambezi in Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique 64,672 755[61]
Tete South of Cahora Bassa, Gile and Gorongosa-Marromeu in Mozambique 13,612, 22,322, 46,781 59, 45, 229[61]

Limpopo admixture zone

Lion at Kruger National Park

The area of the Kruger National Park, which is part of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, is an admixture zone between the Southern-Eastern and the Southwestern clade. This area is a lion stronghold with about 2,300 lions.[61]

Southwestern clade

Lioness and cub near Otjiwarongo, Namibia

The only stronghold of the Southwestern clade is in the western parts of the Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area, including Okavango Delta and Hwange National Park[74][61] Another important reserve for this clade is the Etosha National Park.[61] Lions are considered regionally extinct in the southwestern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[7][41] In Gabon, the presence of lions in Batéké Plateau National Park was doubtful in 2010.

phylogenetic analysis and compared with tissue samples of lions from Gabon and Republic of the Congo that were killed in the 20th century. Results indicate that this individual is closely related to the ancestral lion population of the area, and that its DNA shows a typical Southern lion haplotype. It is considered possible that this lion dispersed to the area from Namibia or Botswana.[37]
In the Republic of the Congo, the Odzala-Kokoua National Park was considered a lion stronghold in the 1990s. By 2014, no lions were recorded in the protected area, so that now, the species is considered
locally extinct in the country.[77]

Range countries Area used in km2 Estimated no. of individuals
Southwestern clade
Kissama-Mumbondo in Angola 4,593 <10[61]
Bocoio-Camucuio in Angola 22,005 55[61]
SE Angola 386,962 1,905[61]
Sioma Ngwezi in Zambia 4,155 <50[61]
Etosha-Kunene in Namibia 123,800 455[61]
Khaudum-Caprivi in Namibia 92,372 150[61]
Xaixai in Botswana 12,484 75[61]
Okavango-Hwange 99,552 2,300[61]
Greater Mapungubwe in Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe 5,158 25[61]
Bubye in Zimbabwe 4,875 200[61]
Total XXX XXX

Behaviour and ecology

Lions mating in Etosha National Park, Namibia

The lion is a social cat, living in groups of related individuals with their offspring. Such a family group is called a 'pride'. The average pride consists of around 15 lions, including several adult females and up to four males and their cubs of both sexes. Large prides, consisting of up to 30 individuals, have also been observed. Male lion groups are called a 'coalition'. Membership only changes with the births and deaths of female lions. Male cubs are excluded from their maternal pride when they reach maturity at around 2–3 years of age.[78] The sole known exception of this pattern is the Tsavo lion pride, which always has just one adult male.[79] Male lions spend years in a nomadic phase before gaining residence in a

Sympatric predators include the leopard, cheetah, hyena and African wild dog.[78][80]

Hunting and diet

Cape buffalo in Sabi Sand Game Reserve
, South Africa

Lions usually

Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer), blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), common eland (Tragelaphus oryx), greater kudu (T. strepsiceros), nyala (T. angasii), roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus), sable antelope (H. niger), plains zebra (Equus quagga), bushpig (Potamochoerus larvatus), common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), hartebeest (Alcephalus buselaphus), common tsessebe (Damaliscus lunatus), waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus), kob (K. kob) and Thomson's gazelle (Eudorcas thomsonii). Their prey is usually in the range of 190–550 kg (420–1,210 pounds).[84] In the Serengeti National Park, lions were observed to also scavenge on carrion of animals that were killed by other predators, or died from natural causes. They kept a constant lookout for circling vultures, apparently being aware that vultures indicate a dead animal.[85]
Faeces of lions collected near waterholes in Hwange National Park also contained remains of climbing mice (Dendromus) and common mice (Mus).[86]

In Botswana's Chobe National Park, lions also prey on African bush elephants (Loxodonta africana). They successfully attacked 74 elephants between 1993 and 1996, of which 26 were older than nine years, and one bull over 15 years old.[87] In October 2005, lions killed eight elephants aged between one and 11 years, and two of them older than eight years.[88]

Attacks on humans

Threats

In Africa, lions are threatened by pre-emptive killing or in retaliation for preying on livestock. Prey base depletion, loss and conversion of habitat have led to a number of subpopulations becoming small and isolated. Trophy hunting has contributed to population declines in Botswana, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Zambia.[7] Although lions and their prey are officially protected in Tsavo National Parks, they are regularly killed by local people, with over 100 known lion killings between 2001 and 2006.[72] Between 2008 and 2013, bones and body parts from at least 2621 individual lions were exported from South Africa to Southeast Asia, and another 3437 lion skeletons between 2014 and 2016. Lion bones are used to replace tiger bones in traditional Asian medicines.[100] Private game ranches in South Africa also breed lions for the canned hunting industry.[101] In 2014, seven lions in Ikona Wildlife Management Area were reportedly poisoned by a herdsman for attacking his cattle.[102] In February 2018, the carcasses of two male and four female lions were found dead in Ruaha National Park, and were suspected to have died of poisoning.[103][104] In 2015 and 2017, two male lions,

Cecil and his son Xanda, were killed by trophy hunters in Zimbabwe's Hwange National Park.[105][106]
In Zambia's Kafue National Park, uncontrolled bushfires and hunting of lions and prey species makes it difficult for the lion population to recover. Cub mortality in particular is high.[107]

Conservation

African lions are included in

IUCN regional offices and many wildlife conservation organisations cooperated to develop a Lion Conservation Strategy for Eastern and Southern Africa in 2006. The strategy envisages to maintain sufficient habitat, ensure a sufficient wild prey base, make lion-human coexistence sustainable and reduce factors that lead to further fragmentation of populations.[4] A significant incentive for local communities in a number of Southern African countries to support measures for conservation is that they generate significant revenue through wildlife tourism.[7]
In 2010, the small and isolated Kalahari population was estimated at 683 to 1,397 individuals in three protected areas, the
Gemsbok National Parks.[108] More than 2000 lions exist in the well-protected Kruger National Park.[109] In June 2015, seven lions were relocated from KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa to Akagera National Park in Rwanda.[110]

In captivity

See also: Drakenstein Lion Park, Gdańsk Zoo, and Novosibirsk Zoo
Captive Kruger lion in Philadelphia Zoo

At the beginning of the 21st century, the

Haile Selassie I.[36][111]
In 2006, the registry of the
International Species Information System (ISIS) showed 29 lions that were derived from animals captured in Angola and Zimbabwe. In addition, about 100 captive lions were registered as P. l. krugeri by ISIS, which derived from lions captured in South Africa.[6][12] Interest in the Cape lion had led to attempts to conserve possible descendants in places like Tygerberg Zoo.[112][113]

Regional names

Lion populations in Southern and East Africa were referred to by several regional names, including "Katanga lion", "Transvaal lion", "Kalahari lion",[14][17][18] "Southeast African lion", and "Southwest African lion",[114] "Masai lion", "Serengeti lion,"[78] "Tsavo lion"[47] and "Uganda lion".[22]

Cultural significance

Between 1910 and 1932, the Coat of arms of South Africa featured a lion

The lion is featured as an animal symbol in East Africa.[115][116] The name 'Simba' is a Swahili word for the lion, which also means 'aggressive', 'king' and 'strong'.[52]

Gallery

See also

References

  1. ^
    OCLC 62265494
    .
  2. ^ a b Wood, John George (1865). "Felidæ; or the Cat Tribe". The illustrated natural history. Boradway, Ludgate Hill, New York City: Routledge. p. 147. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  3. ^ a b Wood, John George (1865). "Felidæ; or the Cat Tribe". Animal Kingdom. Boston: H. A. Brown. p. 147. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bauer, H.; Chardonnet, P.; Nowell, K. (December 2005), Status and distribution of the lion (Panthera leo) in East and Southern Africa (PDF), Johannesburg, South Africa: East and Southern African lion Conservation Workshop, retrieved 2018-09-03
  5. ^
    ISSN 1027-2992
    .
  6. ^
    S2CID 24190889. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 2006-08-24.
  7. ^
    doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T15951A107265605.en https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15951/107265605. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |assessor2= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |assessor3= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |assessor4= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |assessor5= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |assessor= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |taxon= ignored (help
    )
  8. PMID 26504235
    .
  9. ^ a b c d e f Mazak, V. (1975). "Notes on the Black-maned Lion of the Cape, Panthera leo melanochaita (Ch. H. Smith, 1842) and a Revised List of the Preserved Specimens". Verhandelingen Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen (64): 1–44.
  10. ^ a b Smith, C.H. (1842). "Black maned lion Leo melanochaitus". In Jardine, W. (ed.). The Naturalist's Library. Vol. 15 Mammalia. London: Chatto and Windus. p. Plate X, 177.
  11. ^ Noack, T. (1891). "Felis leo". Jahrbuch der Hamburgischen Wissenschaftlichen Anstalten. 9 (1): 120.
  12. ^ a b c d Neumann, O. (1900). "Die von mir in den Jahren 1892–95 in Ost- und Central-Afrika, speciell in den Massai-Ländern und den Ländern am Victoria Nyansa gesammelten und beobachteten Säugethiere". Zoologische Jahrbücher. Abtheilung für Systematik, Geographie und Biologie der Thiere. 13 (VI): 529–562.
  13. ^ Lönnberg, E. (1910). "Mammals". In Sjöstedt, Y. (ed.). Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Schwedischen Zoologischen Expedition nach dem Kilimandjaro, dem Meru und den umgebenden Massaisteppen Deutsch-Ostafrikas 1905–1906. Volume 1. Uppsala: Königlich Schwedische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
  14. ^ a b c Lönnberg, E. (1914). "New and rare mammals from Congo". Revue de Zoologie Africaine (3): 273–278.
  15. ^ a b c Heller, E. (1914). "New races of carnivores and baboons from equatorial Africa and Abyssinia". Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. 61 (19): 1–12.
  16. ^ Allen, J. A. (1924). "Carnivora Collected By The American Museum Congo Expedition". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 47: 73–281.
  17. ^ a b c Roberts, A. (1929). "New forms of African mammals". Annals of the Transvaal Museum. 21 (13): 82–121.
  18. ^ a b Roberts, A. (1948). "Descriptions of some new subspecies of mammals". Annals of the Transvaal Museum. 21 (1): 63–69.
  19. ^ Zukowsky, L. (1964). "Eine neue Löwenrasse als weiterer Beleg für die Verzwergung der Wirbeltierfauna des afrikanischen Osthorns". Milu, Wissenschaftliche und Kulturelle Mitteilungen aus dem Tierpark Berlin (1): 269–273.
  20. ^ a b c Allen, G. M. (1939). A Checklist of African Mammals. Vol. 83. pp. 1–763. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  21. ^ a b Lundholm, B. (1952). "A skull of a Cape lioness (Felis leo melanochaitus H. Smith". Annals of the Transvaal Museum (32): 21–24.
  22. ^ a b c d e f Hemmer, H. (1974). "Untersuchungen zur Stammesgeschichte der Pantherkatzen (Pantherinae) Teil 3. Zur Artgeschichte des Löwen Panthera (Panthera) leo (Linnaeus, 1758)". Veröffentlichungen der Zoologischen Staatssammlung. 17: 167–280.
  23. ^ Stevenson-Hamilton, J. (1954). "Specimen of the extinct Cape lion". African Wildlife (8): 187–189.
  24. ^ Pocock, R. I. (1930). "The lions of Asia". Journal of the Bombay Natural Historical Society. 34: 638–665.
  25. ^ Ellerman, J. R.; Morrison-Scott, T. C. S. (1966). "Subgenus Leo Oken, 1816, (Brehm, 1829)". Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals 1758 to 1946 (Second ed.). London: British Museum (Natural History). p. 319.
  26. ^ Meester, J.; Setzer, H. W. (1977). The mammals of Africa. An identification manual. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
  27. ^ Yamaguchi, N. (2000). "The Barbary lion and the Cape lion: their phylogenetic places and conservation" (PDF). African Lion Working Group News. 1: 9–11.
  28. ^ O’Brien, S. J.; Martenson, J. S.; Packer, C.; Herbst, L.; de Vos, V.; Joslin, P.; Ott-Joslin, J.; Wildt, D. E. & Bush, M. (1987). "Biochemical genetic variation in geographic isolates of African and Asiatic lions" (PDF). National Geographic Research. 3 (1): 114–124. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-02.
  29. ^
    PMID 18989457.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link
    )
  30. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2010.00694.x
    .
  31. S2CID 82728679
    .
  32. ^
    PMID 27488946
    .
  33. ^
    PMID 27488946
    .
  34. S2CID 30414547
    .
  35. S2CID 82728679
    .
  36. ^
    S2CID 508478
    .
  37. ^
    PMID 31007636
    .
  38. ^
    ISBN 978-0-8008-8324-9
    .
  39. ^ Smithers, R. H. N. (1971). The Mammals of Botswana. Pretoria: University of Pretoria.
  40. ^
    S2CID 15893512
    .
  41. ^
    ISBN 978-2-8317-0045-8
    .
  42. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1980.tb01433.x
    .
  43. ^ a b Turner, J. A.; Vasicek, C. A.; Somers, M. J. (2015). "Effects of a colour variant on hunting ability: the white lion in South Africa". Open Science Repository Biology: e45011830.
  44. ^
    ASIN B000OKBJQ0
    .
  45. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00200.x
    .
  46. ^ Call the Hair Club for Lions. The Field Museum.
  47. ^ a b Borzo, G. (2002). "Unique social system found in famous Tsavo lions". EurekAlert.
  48. ^ Nagel, D.; Hilsberg, S.; Benesch, A.; Scholtz, J. (2003). "Functional morphology and fur patterns in recent and fossil Panthera species". Scripta Geologica. 126: 227–239.
  49. ISBN 978-0-949997-32-6
    .
  50. ISBN 978-0-620-31409-1
    .
  51. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9
    .
  52. ^
    ISBN 978-0-89658-329-0
    .
  53. ^ a b c Mésochina, P.; Mbangwa, O.; Chardonnet, P.; Mosha, R.; Mtui, B.; Drouet, N.; Kissui, B. (2010), "Conservation status of the lion (Panthera leo Linnaeus, 1758) in Tanzania", SCI Foundation, MNRT-WD, TAWISA & IGF Foundation, Paris
  54. doi:10.1080/03749444.1966.10736746.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  55. ^ a b c d e Chardonnet, P. (2002). "Chapter II: Population Survey". Conservation of the African Lion : Contribution to a Status Survey (PDF). Paris: International Foundation for the Conservation of Wildlife, France & Conservation Force, USA. pp. 21–101. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 November 2013.
  56. ^
    S2CID 86042501
    .
  57. PMID 10074384
    .
  58. ^ Smithers, R.H.N. (1971). The Mammals of Botswana. Pretoria: University of Pretoria.
  59. ^ Stander, P.E. (1990). "A suggested management strategy for stock-raiding lions in Namibia". South African Journal of Wildlife Research. 20 (2): 37−43.
  60. ^ Rautenbach, I. L. (1978). The Mammals of the Transvaal. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal.
  61. ^
    S2CID 18891375
    .
  62. ^
    S2CID 73692646
    .
  63. ^ Mudumba, T.; Mulondo, P.; Okot, E.; Nsubuga, M.; Plumptre, A. (2010), "National census of lions and hyaenas in Uganda", Uganda Wildlife Authority, Uganda
  64. ^ a b c d Chardonnet, P.; Mésochina, P.; Bento, C.; Conjo, D.; Begg, C. l. (2009), Conservation status of the lion (Panthera leo Linnaeus, 1758) in Mozambique, Maputo, Mozambique{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  65. ^ "Lions rediscovered in Ethiopia's Alatash National Park". BBC News. 2016. Retrieved 1 February 2016.
  66. National Geographic
    . Retrieved 2016-02-07.
  67. ^ Wong, S. (2016). "Hidden population of up to 200 lions found in remote Ethiopia". New Scientist. Retrieved 2 February 2016.
  68. ^
    S2CID 86796885
    .
  69. doi:10.4314/mejs.v6i2.109714
    .
  70. ^
    S2CID 3780510
    .
  71. S2CID 208525344
    .
  72. ^ a b Frank, L.; Maclennan, S.; Hazzah, L.; Hill, T.; Bonham, R. (2006), "Lion Killing in the Amboseli-Tsavo Ecosystem, 2001–2006, and its Implications for Kenya's Lion Population" (PDF), Living with Lions, Nairobi, Kenya 9
  73. doi:10.2174/1874839200701010001
    .
  74. PMID 29975694
    .
  75. ^ Henschel, P. H.; Azani, D. E.; Burton, C. O.; Malanda, G.; Saidu, Y. O.; Sam, M. O.; Hunter, L. U. (2010). "Lion status updates from five range countries in West and Central Africa". Cat News. 52: 34–39.
  76. doi:10.1111/aje.12497
    .
  77. S2CID 84403126.Open access icon
  78. ^
    ISBN 978-0-226-73639-6
    .
  79. doi:10.1002/scin.5591611614
    .
  80. ^ a b Sinclair, A. R. E.; Norton-Griffiths, M., ed. (1979). "Population changes in lions and other predators". Serengeti: dynamics of an ecosystem. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. pp. 249–262. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  81. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1973.tb00088.x
    .
  82. doi:10.1093/beheco/ary018
    .
  83. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.12282
    .
  84. doi:10.1017/S0952836905007508
    .
  85. ^ Cite error: The named reference Schaller72 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  86. PMID 23405121.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  87. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2006.00626.x
    .
  88. S2CID 86371484
    .
  89. ^ Jeal, Tim (2013). Livingstone: Revised and Expanded Edition. Yale University Press. p. 59.
  90. S2CID 85985722.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  91. ^ "Field Museum uncovers evidence behind man-eating; revises legend of its infamous man-eating lions" (Press release). The Field Museum. 2003.
  92. Macmillan and Co.
  93. ^ Rushby, George G. (1965). No More the Tusker. London: W. H. Allen.
  94. ^ "South African lions eat 'poacher', leaving just his head". The BBC. 2018-02-14. Retrieved 2018-02-25.
  95. ^ Haden, A. (2018-02-12). "Suspected poacher mauled to death by lions close to Kruger National Park". The South African. Retrieved 2018-02-25. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  96. ^ Torchia, C. (2018-02-28). "Lion kills woman at refuge of South African 'lion whisperer'". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2018-02-28.
  97. ^ Feingold, S. (2018-03-02). "Lion mauls woman to death at popular South African wildlife sanctuary". CNN. Retrieved 2018-03-02.
  98. ^ "Lions eat 'rhino poachers' on South African game reserve". BBC. 2018-07-05. Retrieved 2018-07-19.
  99. ^ "Suspected rhino poachers killed by lions in South Africa". Ottawa Citizen. Associated Press. 2018-07-06. Retrieved 2018-07-19.
  100. PMID 29065143
    .
  101. S2CID 150275315
    .
  102. ^ "'Herdsmen' poison lions, vultures — but not in Nigeria". The Cable. 2018-02-17. Retrieved 2018-02-24. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  103. ^ Kamoga, J. (2018). "East African lions dying of poisoning". The Observer. Retrieved 2018-02-24.
  104. ^ Winter, S. (2018-02-16). "Lion MASSACRE as six big cats die after eating 'poison'". The Express. Retrieved 2018-02-24.
  105. ^ "Zimbabwe's 'iconic' lion Cecil killed by hunter". BBC News. 27 July 2015. Archived from the original on 28 July 2015. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
  106. ^ "Xanda, son of Cecil the lion, killed by hunter in Zimbabwe". BBC News. 20 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
  107. ^ Midlane, N. (2013). The conservation status and dynamics of a protected African lion Panthera leo population in Kafue National Park, Zambia. Cape Town: University of Cape Town.
  108. doi:10.1111/aje.12003
    .
  109. ^ The Kruger Nationalpark Map. Honeyguide Publications CC. South Africa 2004.
  110. ^ Smith, D. (2015). "Lions to be reintroduced to Rwanda after 15-year absence following genocide". The Guardian.
  111. S2CID 24543070
    .
  112. ^ "South Africa: Lion Cubs Thought to Be Cape Lions". AP Archive, of the Associated Press. 8 November 2000. (with 2-minute video of cubs at zoo with John Spence, 3 sound-bites, and 15 photos)
  113. ^ "'Extinct' lions (Cape lion) surface in Siberia". The BBC. 2000-11-05. Retrieved 2012-12-31.
  114. ISBN 978-1861897350
    .
  115. ISBN 978-1-57607-645-3
    .
  116. ISBN 978-0-8160-4892-2
    .

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lions of Southern Africa.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lions of Southeast Africa.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Punetor_i_Rregullt5/sandbox/Comparison_of_cheetahs,_jaguars_and_leopards&oldid=1195099027"