Rwanda

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Republic of Rwanda
Repubulika y'u Rwanda (
Kinyarwanda)
République du Rwanda (French)
Jamhuri ya Rwanda (Swahili
)
The seal of Rwanda: central tribal devices, surmounted on a cog wheel and encircled by a square knot
Coat of arms
Motto: "Ubumwe, Umurimo, Gukunda Igihugu"
(English: "Unity, Work, Patriotism")
(French: "Unité, Travail, Patriotisme")
(Swahili: "Umoja, Kazi, Uzalendo")
Anthem: "
President
Paul Kagame
Édouard Ngirente
Legislature
Republic declared
1 July 1961
• Independence from Belgium
1 July 1962
• Admitted to the UN
18 September 1962
26 May 2003
+250
ISO 3166 codeRW
Internet TLD.rw

Rwanda,

soubriquet "land of a thousand hills" (French: pays des mille collines), with its geography dominated by mountains in the west and savanna to the southeast, with numerous lakes throughout the country. The climate is temperate to subtropical, with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons each year. It is the most densely populated mainland African country; among countries larger than 10,000 km2, it is the fifth most densely populated country in the world. Its capital and largest city is Kigali
.

clans, and then into kingdoms. In the 15th century, one kingdom, under King Gihanga, managed to incorporate several of its close neighbor territories establishing the Kingdom of Rwanda. The Kingdom of Rwanda dominated from the mid-eighteenth century, with the Tutsi kings conquering others militarily, centralising power, and enacting unifying policies. In 1897, Germany colonized Rwanda as part of German East Africa, followed by Belgium, which took control in 1916 during World War I. Both European nations ruled through the Rwandan king and perpetuated a pro-Tutsi policy. The Hutu population revolted in 1959. They massacred numerous Tutsi and ultimately established an independent, Hutu-dominated republic in 1962 led by President Grégoire Kayibanda. A 1973 military coup overthrew Kayibanda and brought Juvénal Habyarimana to power, who retained the pro-Hutu policy. The Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) launched a civil war in 1990. Habyarimana was assassinated in April 1994. Social tensions erupted in the Rwandan genocide
that spanned one hundred days. The RPF ended the genocide with a military victory in July 1994.

Rwanda has been governed by the RPF as a de facto

pygmy people and are often considered descendants of Rwanda's earliest inhabitants. Christianity is the largest religion in the country; the principal and national language is Kinyarwanda
, spoken by native Rwandans, with English, French and Swahili serving as additional official foreign languages.

Rwanda's economy is based mostly on subsistence agriculture. Coffee and tea are the major cash crops in Rwanda to export. Tourism is a fast-growing sector and is now the country's leading foreign exchange earner. The country is a member of the African Union, the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, COMESA, OIF and the East African Community.

History

Main articles: History of Rwanda, German East Africa, and Ruanda-Urundi

Modern human settlement of what is now Rwanda dates from, at the latest, the

long humid period which followed, up to around 3000 BC.[15] Archaeological excavations have revealed evidence of sparse settlement by hunter-gatherers in the late Stone Age, followed by a larger population of early Iron Age settlers, who produced dimpled pottery and iron tools.[16][17] These early inhabitants were the ancestors of the Twa, aboriginal pygmy hunter-gatherers who remain in Rwanda today.[18] Between 700 BC and 1500 AD, a number of Bantu groups migrated into Rwanda, clearing forest land for agriculture.[18][19] The forest-dwelling Twa lost much of their habitat and moved to the mountain slopes.[20] Historians have several theories regarding the nature of the Bantu migrations; one theory is that the first settlers were Hutu, while the Tutsi migrated later to form a distinct racial group, possibly of Nilo-hamitic origin.[21] An alternative theory is that the migration was slow and steady, with incoming groups integrating into rather than conquering the existing society.[18][22] Under this theory, the Hutu and Tutsi distinction arose later and was a class distinction rather than a racial one.[23][24]

A reconstruction of the ancient King's Palace at Nyanza

The earliest form of social organisation in the area was the

clan (ubwoko).[25] The clans were not limited to genealogical lineages or geographical area, and most included Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa.[26] From the 15th century, the clans began to merge into kingdoms.[27] One kingdom, under King Gihanga, managed to incorporate several of its close neighbor territories establishing the Kingdom of Rwanda. By 1700, around eight kingdoms had existed in the present-day Rwanda.[28] One of these, the Kingdom of Rwanda ruled by the Tutsi Nyiginya clan, became increasingly dominant from the mid-eighteenth century.[29] The kingdom reached its greatest extent during the nineteenth century under the reign of King Kigeli Rwabugiri. Rwabugiri conquered several smaller states, expanded the kingdom west and north,[29][30] and initiated administrative reforms; these included ubuhake, in which Tutsi patrons ceded cattle, and therefore privileged status, to Hutu or Tutsi clients in exchange for economic and personal service,[31] and uburetwa, a corvée system in which Hutu were forced to work for Tutsi chiefs.[30] Rwabugiri's changes caused a rift to grow between the Hutu and Tutsi populations.[30] The Twa were better off than in pre-Kingdom days, with some becoming dancers in the royal court,[20] but their numbers continued to decline.[32]

The Berlin Conference of 1884 assigned the territory to the German Empire, who declared it to be part of German East Africa. In 1894, explorer Gustav Adolf von Götzen was the first European to cross the entire territory of Rwanda; he crossed from the south-east to Lake Kivu and met the king.[33][34] In 1897, Germany established a presence in Rwanda with the formation of an alliance with the king, beginning the colonial era.[35] The Germans did not significantly alter the social structure of the country, but exerted influence by supporting the king and the existing hierarchy, and delegating power to local chiefs.[36][37] Belgian forces invaded Rwanda and Burundi in 1916, during World War I, and later, in 1922, they started to rule both Rwanda and Burundi as a League of Nations mandate called Ruanda-Urundi and started a period of more direct colonial rule.[38] The Belgians simplified and centralised the power structure,[39] introduced large-scale projects in education, health, public works, and agricultural supervision, including new crops and improved agricultural techniques to try to reduce the incidence of famine.[40] Both the Germans and the Belgians, in the wake of New Imperialism, promoted Tutsi supremacy, considering the Hutu and Tutsi different races.[41] In 1935, Belgium introduced an identity card system, which labelled each individual as either Tutsi, Hutu, Twa or Naturalised. While it had been previously possible for particularly wealthy Hutu to become honorary Tutsi, the identity cards prevented any further movement between the classes.[42]

Photograph of President Juvénal Habyarimana arriving with entourage at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, USA on 25 September 1980.
Juvénal Habyarimana, president from 1973 to 1994

Belgium continued to rule

Second World War, with a mandate to oversee eventual independence.[43][44] Tensions escalated between the Tutsi, who favoured early independence, and the Hutu emancipation movement, culminating in the 1959 Rwandan Revolution: Hutu activists began killing Tutsi and destroying their houses,[45] forcing more than 100,000 people to seek refuge in neighbouring countries.[46][47] In 1961, the suddenly pro-Hutu Belgians held a referendum in which the country voted to abolish the monarchy. Rwanda was separated from Burundi and gained independence on 1 July 1962,[48] which is commemorated as Independence Day, a national holiday.[49] Cycles of violence followed, with exiled Tutsi attacking from neighbouring countries and the Hutu retaliating with large-scale slaughter and repression of the Tutsi.[50] In 1973, Juvénal Habyarimana took power in a military coup. Pro-Hutu discrimination continued, but there was greater economic prosperity and a reduced amount of violence against Tutsi.[51] The Twa remained marginalised, and by 1990 were almost entirely forced out of the forests by the government; many became beggars.[52] Rwanda's population had increased from 1.6 million people in 1934 to 7.1 million in 1989, leading to competition for land.[53]

Human skulls at the Nyamata Genocide Memorial

In 1990, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a rebel group composed of Tutsi refugees, invaded northern Rwanda from their base in Uganda, initiating the Rwandan Civil War.[54] The group condemned the Hutu-dominated government for failing to democratize and confront the problems facing these refugees. Neither side was able to gain a decisive advantage in the war,[55] but by 1992 it had weakened Habyarimana's authority; mass demonstrations forced him into a coalition with the domestic opposition and eventually to sign the 1993 Arusha Accords with the RPF.[56] The cease-fire ended on 6 April 1994 when Habyarimana's plane was shot down near Kigali Airport, killing him.[57] The shooting down of the plane served as the catalyst for the Rwandan genocide, which began within a few hours. Over the course of approximately 100 days, between 500,000 and 1,000,000[58] Tutsi and politically moderate Hutu were killed in well-planned attacks on the orders of the interim government.[59] Many Twa were also killed, despite not being directly targeted.[52]

The Tutsi RPF restarted their offensive, and took control of the country methodically, gaining control of the whole country by mid-July.

Gacaca, a traditional village court system.[64] Since 2000 Rwanda's economy,[65] tourist numbers,[66] and Human Development Index have grown rapidly;[67] between 2006 and 2011 the poverty rate reduced from 57% to 45%,[68] while life expectancy rose from 46.6 years in 2000[69] to 65.4 years in 2021.[70]

In 2009, Rwanda joined the Commonwealth of Nations although the country was never part of the British Empire.

Politics and government

Main articles: Politics of Rwanda, Foreign relations of Rwanda, and Rwanda Defence Force
Photograph of Paul Kagame, taken in Busan, South Korea, in 2014
Rwandan President Paul Kagame

Rwanda is a de facto one-party state[2][3][4][5][6][7] ruled by the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) and its leader Paul Kagame continuously since the end of the civil war in 1994.[71][72] Although Rwanda is nominally democratic, elections are manipulated in various ways, which include banning opposition parties, arresting or assassinating critics, and electoral fraud.[73] The RPF is a Tutsi-dominated party but receives support from other communities as well.[74]

The constitution was adopted following a national referendum in 2003, replacing the transitional constitution which had been in place since 1994.

armed forces,[80] negotiating and ratifying treaties,[81] signing presidential orders,[82] and declaring war or a state of emergency.[80] The president is elected every seven years,[83] and appoints the prime minister and all other members of the Cabinet.[84] The Parliament consists of two chambers. It makes legislation and is empowered by the constitution to oversee the activities of the president and the Cabinet.[85] The lower chamber is the Chamber of Deputies, which has 80 members serving five-year terms. Twenty-four of these seats are reserved for women, elected through a joint assembly of local government officials; another three seats are reserved for youth and disabled members; the remaining 53 are elected by universal suffrage under a proportional representation system.[86]

Chamber of Deputies building

Rwanda's legal system is largely based on German and Belgian civil law systems and customary law.[70] The judiciary is independent of the executive branch,[87] although the president and the Senate are involved in the appointment of Supreme Court judges.[88] Human Rights Watch have praised the Rwandan government for progress made in the delivery of justice including the abolition of the death penalty,[89] but also allege interference in the judicial system by members of the government, such as the politically motivated appointment of judges, misuse of prosecutorial power, and pressure on judges to make particular decisions.[90] The constitution provides for two types of courts: ordinary and specialised.[91] Ordinary courts are the Supreme Court, the High Court, and regional courts, while specialised courts are military courts[91] and a system of commercial courts created in 2011 to expedite commercial litigations.[92] Between 2004 and 2012, a system of Gacaca courts was in operation.[93] Gacaca, a Rwandan traditional court operated by villages and communities, was revived to expedite the trials of genocide suspects.[94] The court succeeded in clearing the backlog of genocide cases, but was criticised by human rights groups as not meeting legal fair standard.[95]

Rwanda has low corruption levels relative to most other African countries; in 2014, Transparency International ranked Rwanda as the fifth cleanest out of 47 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and 55th cleanest out of 175 in the world.[96][97] The constitution provides for an ombudsman, whose duties include prevention and fighting of corruption.[98][99] Public officials (including the president) are required by the constitution to declare their wealth to the ombudsman and to the public; those who do not comply are suspended from office.[100] Despite this, Human Rights Watch notes extensive political repression throughout the country, including illegal and arbitrary detention, threats or other forms of intimidation, disappearances, politically motivated trials, and the massacre of peacefully protesting civilians.[101]

Rwanda is a member of the

Francophonie,[103] East African Community,[104] and the Commonwealth of Nations.[105] For many years during the Habyarimana regime, the country maintained close ties with France, as well as Belgium, the former colonial power.[106] Under the RPF government, however, Rwanda has sought closer ties with neighbouring countries in the East African Community and with the English-speaking world. Diplomatic relations with France were suspended in 2006 following the indictment of Rwandan officials by a French judge,[107] and despite their restoration in 2010, as of 2015 relations between the countries remain strained.[108] Relations with the Democratic Republic of the Congo were tense following Rwanda's involvement in the First and Second Congo Wars;[63] the Congolese army alleged Rwandan attacks on their troops, while Rwanda blamed the Congolese government for failing to suppress Hutu rebels in North and South Kivu provinces.[109][110] In 2010, the United Nations released a report accusing the Rwandan army of committing wide scale human rights violations and crimes against humanity in the Democratic Republic of the Congo during the First and Second Congo Wars, charges denied by the Rwandan government.[111] Relations soured further in 2012, as Kinshasa accused Rwanda of supporting the M23 rebellion, an insurgency in the eastern Congo.[112] As of 2015, peace has been restored and relations are improving.[113] Rwanda's relationship with Uganda was also tense for much of the 2000s following a 1999 clash between the two countries' armies as they backed opposing rebel groups in the Second Congo War,[114] but improved significantly in the early 2010s.[115][116] In 2019, relations between the two countries deteriorated, with Rwanda closing its borders with Uganda.[117][118]

Administrative divisions

Further information: Decentralization in Rwanda
Map of Rwanda showing the five provinces in various colours, as well as major cities, lakes, rivers, and areas of neighbouring countries
Provinces of Rwanda

Before western colonization, the Rwandan government system had a quasi-system of political pluralism and power sharing. [119] Despite there being a strict hierarchy, the pre-colonial system achieved an established, combined system of "centralized power and decentralized autonomous units." Under the monarch, the elected Chief governed a province that was divided into multiple districts. Two other officials appointed by head Chief governed the districts; one official was allocated power over the land while the other oversaw cattle. The king (mwami) exercised control through a system of provinces, districts, hills, and neighbourhoods.[120] As of 2003, the constitution divided Rwanda into provinces (intara), districts (uturere), cities, municipalities, towns, sectors (imirenge), cells (utugari), and villages (imidugudu); the larger divisions, and their borders, are established by Parliament.[121] In January 2006, Rwanda was reorganized such that twelve provinces were merged to create five, and 106 districts were merged into thirty.[122] The present borders drawn in 2006 aimed at decentralising power and removing associations with the old system and the genocide. The previous structure of twelve provinces associated with the largest cities was replaced with five provinces based primarily on geography.[123] These are Northern Province, Southern Province, Eastern Province, Western Province, and the Municipality of Kigali in the centre.

The five provinces act as intermediaries between the national government and their constituent districts to ensure that national policies are implemented at the district level. The Rwanda Decentralisation Strategic Framework developed by the Ministry of Local Government assigns to provinces the responsibility for "coordinating governance issues in the Province, as well as monitoring and evaluation".[124] Each province is headed by a governor, appointed by the president and approved by the Senate.[125] The districts are responsible for coordinating public service delivery and economic development. They are divided into sectors, which are responsible for the delivery of public services as mandated by the districts.[126] Districts and sectors have directly elected councils, and are run by an executive committee selected by that council.[127] The cells and villages are the smallest political units, providing a link between the people and the sectors.[126] All adult resident citizens are members of their local cell council, from which an executive committee is elected.[127] The city of Kigali is a provincial-level authority, which coordinates urban planning within the city.[124]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Rwanda
Topography of Rwanda

At 26,338 square kilometres (10,169 sq mi), Rwanda is the world's 149th-largest country,

landlocked.[130] The capital, Kigali, is located near the centre of Rwanda.[131]

The

source of the Nile.[133] Rwanda has many lakes, the largest being Lake Kivu. This lake occupies the floor of the Albertine Rift along most of the length of Rwanda's western border, and with a maximum depth of 480 metres (1,575 ft),[134] it is one of the twenty deepest lakes in the world.[135] Other sizeable lakes include Burera, Ruhondo, Muhazi, Rweru, and Ihema, the last being the largest of a string of lakes in the eastern plains of Akagera National Park.[136]

Mountains dominate central and western Rwanda and the country is sometimes called "Pays des mille collines" in French ("Land of a thousand hills").[137] They are part of the Albertine Rift Mountains that flank the Albertine branch of the East African Rift, which runs from north to south along Rwanda's western border.[138] The highest peaks are found in the Virunga volcano chain in the northwest; this includes Mount Karisimbi, Rwanda's highest point, at 4,507 metres (14,787 ft).[139] This western section of the country lies within the Albertine Rift montane forests ecoregion.[138] It has an elevation of 1,500 to 2,500 metres (4,921 to 8,202 ft).[140] The centre of the country is predominantly rolling hills, while the eastern border region consists of savanna, plains and swamps.[141]

Climate

Photograph of a lake with one of the Virunga mountains behind, partially in cloud
Lake and volcano in the Virunga Mountains

Rwanda has a

Global warming has caused a change in the pattern of the rainy seasons. According to a report by the Strategic Foresight Group, change in climate has reduced the number of rainy days experienced during a year, but has also caused an increase in frequency of torrential rains.[146] Both changes have caused difficulty for farmers, decreasing their productivity.[147] Strategic Foresight also characterise Rwanda as a fast warming country, with an increase in average temperature of between 0.7 °C to 0.9 °C over fifty years.[146]

Biodiversity

Main article: Wildlife of Rwanda
mountain gorillas
in the world.

In prehistoric times

terraced agriculture dominating the rest of the country.[148] Nyungwe, the largest remaining tract of forest, contains 200 species of tree as well as orchids and begonias.[149] Vegetation in the Volcanoes National Park is mostly bamboo and moorland, with small areas of forest.[148] By contrast, Akagera has a savanna ecosystem in which acacia dominates the flora. There are several rare or endangered plant species in Akagera, including Markhamia lutea and Eulophia guineensis.[150][151]

The greatest diversity of large mammals is found in the three national parks, which are designated conservation areas.

common chimpanzees and Ruwenzori colobus arboreal monkeys; the Ruwenzori colobus move in groups of up to 400 individuals, the largest troop size of any primate in Africa.[155]

Giraffe in Akagera National Park

Rwanda's population of lions was destroyed in the aftermath of the genocide of 1994, as national parks were turned into camps for displaced people and the remaining animals were poisoned by cattle herders. In June 2015, two South African parks donated seven lions to Akagera National Park, reestablishing a lion population in Rwanda.[156] The lions were held initially in a fenced-off area of the park, and then collared and released into the wild a month later.[157]

Eighteen endangered black rhinos were brought to Rwanda in 2017 from South Africa.[158] After positive results, five more black rhinos were delivered to Akagera National Park from zoos all over Europe in 2019.[159]

Similarly, the white rhino population is growing in Rwanda. In 2021, Rwanda received 30 white rhinos from South Africa with the goal of Akagera being a safe breeding ground for the near-threatened species.[160][161]

There are 670 bird species in Rwanda, with variation between the east and the west.[162] Nyungwe Forest, in the west, has 280 recorded species, of which 26 are endemic to the Albertine Rift;[162] endemic species include the Rwenzori turaco and handsome spurfowl.[163] Eastern Rwanda, by contrast, features savanna birds such as the black-headed gonolek and those associated with swamps and lakes, including storks and cranes.[162]

Recent entomological work in the country has revealed a rich diversity of

praying mantises,[164] including a new species Dystacta tigrifrutex, dubbed the "bush tiger mantis".[165]

Rwanda contains three terrestrial ecoregions:

Ruwenzori-Virunga montane moorlands.[166] The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 3.85/10, ranking it 139th globally out of 172 countries.[167]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Rwanda

Rwanda's economy suffered heavily during the 1994 genocide, with widespread loss of life, failure to maintain infrastructure, looting, and neglect of important cash crops. This caused a large drop in GDP and destroyed the country's ability to attract private and external investment.

monetary union amongst the seven member nations,[171] which could eventually lead to a common East African shilling.[172]

Rwanda is a country of few natural resources,[130] and the economy is based mostly on subsistence agriculture by local farmers using simple tools.[173] An estimated 90% of the working population farms, and agriculture constituted an estimated 32.5% of GDP in 2014.[70] Farming techniques are basic, with small plots of land and steep slopes.[174] Since the mid-1980s, farm sizes and food production have been decreasing, due in part to the resettlement of displaced people.[175][130] Despite Rwanda's fertile ecosystem, food production often does not keep pace with population growth, and food imports are required.[70] However, in recent years with the growth of agriculture, the situation has improved.[176]

Rwanda produced 2.6 million tonnes of banana in 2019, its largest cash crop.[177]

Subsistence crops grown in the country include matoke (green bananas), which occupy more than a third of the country's farmland,[174] potatoes, beans, sweet potatoes, cassava, wheat and maize.[174] Coffee and tea are the major cash crops for export, with the high altitudes, steep slopes and volcanic soils providing favourable conditions.[174] Reports have established that more than 400,000 Rwandans make their living from coffee plantation.[178] Reliance on agricultural exports makes Rwanda vulnerable to shifts in their prices.[179] Animals raised in Rwanda include cows, goats, sheep, pigs, chicken, and rabbits, with geographical variation in the numbers of each.[180] Production systems are mostly traditional, although there are a few intensive dairy farms around Kigali.[180] Shortages of land and water, insufficient and poor-quality feed, and regular disease epidemics with insufficient veterinary services are major constraints that restrict output. Fishing takes place on the country's lakes, but stocks are very depleted, and live fish are being imported in an attempt to revive the industry.[181]

The industrial sector is small, contributing 14.8% of GDP in 2014.[70] Products manufactured include cement, agricultural products, small-scale beverages, soap, furniture, shoes, plastic goods, textiles and cigarettes.[70] Rwanda's mining industry is an important contributor, generating US$93 million in 2008.[182] Minerals mined include cassiterite, wolframite, gold, and coltan, which is used in the manufacture of electronic and communication devices such as mobile phones.[182][183]

Rwanda's

savanna reserve in the east of the country.[189]

Rwanda was ranked 103rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[190]

Media and communications

Main articles:
Media of Rwanda

The largest radio and television stations are state-run, and the majority of newspapers are owned by the government.[191] Most Rwandans have access to radio; during the 1994 genocide, the radio station Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines broadcast across the country, and helped to fuel the killings through anti-Tutsi propaganda.[191] As of 2015, the state-run Radio Rwanda is the largest station and the main source of news throughout the country.[191] Television access is limited, with most homes not having their own set.[192] The government rolled out digital television in 2014, and a year later there were seven national stations operating, up from just one in the pre-2014 analogue era.[193] The press is tightly restricted, and newspapers routinely self-censor to avoid government reprisals.[191] Nonetheless, publications in Kinyarwanda, English, and French critical of the government are widely available in Kigali. Restrictions were increased in the run-up to the Rwandan presidential election of 2010, with two independent newspapers, Umuseso and Umuvugizi, being suspended for six months by the High Media Council.[194]

The country's oldest telecommunications group,

wireless internet service accessible in most areas of Kigali via pre-paid subscription.[205]

In October 2019,

Mara Corporation launched the first African made smartphone in Rwanda.[206]

Infrastructure

Main articles: Transport in Rwanda, Energy in Rwanda, and Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda
Photograph depicting one adult and five children filling jerrycans at a rural metal water pump with concrete base, at the bottom of a steep rocky hillside
Rural water pump

The Rwandan government prioritised funding of water supply development during the 2000s, significantly increasing its share of the national budget.[207] This funding, along with donor support, caused a rapid increase in access to safe water; in 2015, 74% of the population had access to safe water,[208] up from about 55% in 2005;[207] the government has committed to increasing this to 100% by 2017.[208] The country's water infrastructure consists of urban and rural systems that deliver water to the public, mainly through standpipes in rural areas and private connections in urban areas. In areas not served by these systems, hand pumps and managed springs are used.[209] Despite rainfall exceeding 750 millimetres (30 in) annually in most of the country,[210] little use is made of rainwater harvesting, and residents are forced to use water very sparingly, relative to usage in other African countries.[208] Access to sanitation remains low; the United Nations estimates that in 2006, 34% of urban and 20% of rural dwellers had access to improved sanitation.[211] Kigali is one of the cleanest cities in Africa.[212] Government policy measures to improve sanitation are limited, focusing only on urban areas.[211] The majority of the population, both urban and rural, use public shared pit latrines.[211]

Rwanda's electricity supply was, until the early 2000s, generated almost entirely from

loadshedding.[214] As an emergency measure, the government installed diesel generators north of Kigali; by 2006 these were providing 56% of the country's electricity, but were very costly.[214] The government enacted a number of measures to alleviate this problem, including rehabilitating the Rugezi wetlands, which supply water to Burera and Ruhondo and investing in a scheme to extract methane gas from Lake Kivu, expected in its first phase to increase the country's power generation by 40%.[215] Only 18% of the population had access to electricity in 2012, though this had risen from 10.8% in 2009.[216] The government's Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy for 2013–18 aims to increase access to electricity to 70% of households by 2017.[217]

Rwanda electricity production by source

The government has increased investment in the

Akagera River.[227]

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Rwanda and Youth in Rwanda
 
 
Largest cities or towns in Rwanda
Source:[228]
Rank Name Province Pop.
Kigali
Kigali
Gisenyi
Gisenyi 		1 Kigali Kigali 1,132,168
Gitarama
2 Gisenyi Western 136,830
3 Butare Southern 89,600
4
Gitarama
 Southern 87,163
5 Ruhengeri Northern 86,685
6 Byumba Northern 70,593
7 Cyangugu Western 63,883
8 Kibuye Western 48,024
9 Rwamagana Eastern 47,203
10 Nzega Southern 46,240

As of 2015, the

World Factbook, the annual birth rate is estimated at 40.2 births per 1,000 inhabitants in 2015, and the death rate at 14.9.[70] The life expectancy is 67.67 years (69.27 years for females and 67.11 years for males), which is the 26th lowest out of 224 countries and territories.[70][233] The overall sex ratio of the country is 95.9 males per 100 females.[70]

Photograph depicting seven rural children, with a straw house and farmland in the background, taken in the Volcanoes National Park in 2005
Rural children

At 445 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,150/sq mi),[229] Rwanda's population density is amongst the highest in Africa.[234] Historians such as Gérard Prunier believe that the 1994 genocide can be partly attributed to the population density.[53] The population is predominantly rural, with a few large towns; dwellings are evenly spread throughout the country.[235] The only sparsely populated area of the country is the savanna land in the former province of Umutara and Akagera National Park in the east.[236] Kigali is the largest city, with a population of around one million.[237] Its rapidly increasing population challenges its infrastructural development.[70][238][239] According to the 2012 census, the second largest city is Gisenyi, which lies adjacent to Lake Kivu and the Congolese city of Goma, and has a population of 126,000.[240] Other major towns include Ruhengeri, Butare, and Muhanga, all with populations below 100,000.[240] The urban population rose from 6% of the population in 1990,[238] to 16.6% in 2006;[241] by 2011, however, the proportion had dropped slightly, to 14.8%.[241]

Rwanda has been a unified state since pre-colonial times,

government discourages the Hutu/Tutsi/Twa distinction, and has removed such classification from identity cards.[249] The 2002 census was the first since 1933[250] which did not categorise Rwandan population into the three groups.[251]

Education

Main article: Education in Rwanda
One Laptop Per Child
programme

Prior to 2012, the Rwandan government provided free education in state-run schools for nine years: six years in primary and three years following a common secondary programme.

gross enrollment ratio for tertiary education in Rwanda was 7.9%, from 3.6% in 2006.[260] The country's literacy rate, defined as those aged 15 or over who can read and write, was 71% in 2009, up from 38% in 1978 and 58% in 1991.[261]

Health

Main articles: Healthcare in Rwanda and Health in Rwanda
Burera
, Northern Province

The quality of healthcare in Rwanda has historically been very low, both before and immediately after the 1994 genocide.[262] In 1998, more than one in five children died before their fifth birthday,[263] often from malaria.[264]

President Kagame has made healthcare one of the priorities for the Vision 2020 development programme,[265] boosting spending on health care to 6.5% of the country's gross domestic product in 2013,[266] compared with 1.9% in 1996.[267] The government has devolved the financing and management of healthcare to local communities, through a system of health insurance providers called mutuelles de santé.[268] The mutuelles were piloted in 1999, and were made available nationwide by the mid-2000s, with the assistance of international development partners.[268] Premiums under the scheme were initially US$2 per annum; since 2011 the rate has varied on a sliding scale, with the poorest paying nothing, and maximum premiums rising to US$8 per adult.[269] As of 2014, more than 90% of the population was covered by the scheme.[270] The government has also set up training institutes including the Kigali Health Institute (KHI), which was established in 1997[271] and is now part of the University of Rwanda. In 2005, President Kagame also launched a program known as The Presidents' Malaria Initiative.[272] This initiative aimed to help get the most necessary materials for prevention of malaria to the most rural areas of Rwanda, such as mosquito nets and medication.

Historical development of life expectancy in Rwanda

In recent years Rwanda has seen improvement on a number of key health indicators. Between 2005 and 2013, life expectancy increased from 55.2 to 64.0,[273] under-5 mortality decreased from 106.4 to 52.0 per 1,000 live births,[274] and incidence of tuberculosis has dropped from 101 to 69 per 100,000 people.[275] The country's progress in healthcare has been cited by the international media and charities. The Atlantic devoted an article to "Rwanda's Historic Health Recovery".[276] Partners In Health described the health gains "among the most dramatic the world has seen in the last 50 years".[269]

Despite these improvements, however, the country's health profile remains dominated by communicable diseases,[277] and the United States Agency for International Development has described "significant health challenges",[278] including the rate of maternal mortality, which it describes as "unacceptably high",[278] as well as the ongoing HIV/AIDS epidemic.[278] According to the American Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, travellers to Rwanda are highly recommended to take preventive malaria medication as well as make sure they are up to date with vaccines such as yellow fever.[279]

Rwanda also has a shortage of medical professionals, with only 0.84 physicians, nurses, and midwives per 1,000 residents.[280] The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is monitoring the country's health progress towards Millennium Development Goals 4–6, which relate to healthcare. A mid-2015 UNDP report noted that the country was not on target to meet goal 4 on infant mortality, despite it having "fallen dramatically";[281] the country is "making good progress" towards goal 5, which is to reduce by three quarters the maternal mortality ratio,[282] while goal 6 is not yet met as HIV prevalence has not started falling.[283]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Rwanda
Photograph depicting the Catholic parish church in Rwamagana, Eastern Province, including the main entrance, façade, the separate bell tower, and dirt forecourt
Catholic church in Rwamagana

The largest faith in Rwanda is

Seventh-day Adventists) 37.7%, Seventh-day Adventists 11.8%, and Muslims 2.0%; 0.2% claimed no religious beliefs and 1.3% did not state a religion.[285] Traditional religion, despite officially being followed by only 0.1% of the population, retains an influence. Many Rwandans view the Christian God as synonymous with the traditional Rwandan God Imana.[286]

Languages

Main article: Languages of Rwanda

The country's principal and national language is Kinyarwanda, which is virtually spoken by the entire country (98%).[287] The major European languages during the colonial era were German, though it was never taught or widely used, and then French, which was introduced by Belgium from 1916 and remained an official and widely spoken language after independence in 1962.[288] Dutch was spoken as well. The return of English-speaking Rwandan refugees in the 1990s[288] added a new dimension to the country's language policy,[289] and the repositioning of Rwanda as a member of the East African Community has since increased the importance of English; the medium of education was switched from French to English in 2008.[287] Kinyarwanda, English, French, and Swahili are all official languages.[290] Kinyarwanda is the national language while English is the primary medium of instruction in secondary and tertiary education. Swahili, the lingua franca of the East African Community,[291] is also spoken by some as a second language, particularly returned refugees from Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and those who live along the border with the DRC.[292] In 2015, Swahili was introduced as a mandatory subject in secondary schools.[291] Inhabitants of Rwanda's Nkombo Island speak Mashi, a language closely related to Kinyarwanda.[293]

French was spoken by slightly under 6% of the population according to the 2012 census and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.[294] English was reported to be spoken by 15% of the population in 2009, though the same report found the proportion of French-speakers to be 68%.[287] Swahili is spoken by fewer than 1%.[295]

Human rights

See also: Human rights in Rwanda and LGBT rights in Rwanda

Homosexuality is generally considered a taboo topic, and there is no significant public discussion of this issue in any region of the country. Some lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) Rwandans have reported being harassed and blackmailed.[296][297][298] Same-sex sexual activity is not specifically illegal in Rwanda. Some cabinet-level government officials have expressed support for the rights of LGBT people;[299] however, no special legislative protections are afforded to LGBT people,[297] who may be arrested by the police under various laws dealing with public order and morality.[298] Same-sex marriages are not recognized by the state, as the constitution provides that "[o]nly civil monogamous marriage between a man and a woman is recognized".[300]

Since 2006, Human Rights Watch has documented that Rwandan authorities round up and detain street children, street vendors, sex workers, homeless people, and beggars, as well as the use of torture in safe houses and other facilities, such as Kami military camp, Kwa Gacinya and Gikondo prison.[301]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Rwanda
Photograph depicting two male dancers with straw wigs, neck garments, spears and sticks
Traditional Rwandan intore dancers

R&B and dance-pop.[307]

Photograph depicting a bowl shaped off-white woven basket with tall conical lid and black zigzag pattern
Rwandan woven agaseke basket

Traditional arts and crafts are produced throughout the country, although most originated as functional items rather than purely for decoration. Woven baskets and bowls are especially common, notably the basket style of the agaseke.[308] Imigongo, a unique cow dung art, is produced in the southeast of Rwanda, with a history dating back to when the region was part of the independent Gisaka kingdom. The dung is mixed with natural soils of various colours and painted into patterned ridges to form geometric shapes.[309] Other crafts include pottery and wood carving.[310] Traditional housing styles make use of locally available materials; circular or rectangular mud homes with grass-thatched roofs (known as nyakatsi) are the most common. The government has initiated a programme to replace these with more modern materials such as corrugated iron.[311][312]

Rwanda does not have a long history of written literature, but there is a strong oral tradition ranging from poetry to

Golden Globe-nominated Hotel Rwanda, 100 Days, Shake Hands with the Devil, Sometimes in April, and Shooting Dogs, the last four having been filmed in Rwanda and having featured survivors as cast members.[315][316]

Fourteen regular national holidays are observed throughout the year,[317] with others occasionally inserted by the government. The week following Genocide Memorial Day on 7 April is designated an official week of mourning.[318] The victory for the RPF over the Hutu extremists is celebrated as Liberation Day on 4 July. The last Saturday of each month is umuganda, a national morning of mandatory community service lasting from 8 am to 11 am, during which all able bodied people between 18 and 65 are expected to carry out community tasks such as cleaning streets or building homes for vulnerable people.[319] Most normal services close down during umuganda, and public transportation is limited.[319]

Cuisine

Main article:
Cuisine of Rwanda
A plate of ugali and cabbage

The cuisine of Rwanda is based on local

Brochettes are the most popular food when eating out in the evening, usually made from goat but sometimes tripe, beef, or fish.[323]

In rural areas, many bars have a brochette seller responsible for tending and slaughtering the goats, skewering and

spirits.[331]

Sport

Main article: Sport in Rwanda
cross-country mountain biking
event at the 2012 Summer Olympics

The Rwandan government, through its Sports Development Policy, promotes sport as a strong avenue for "development and peace building",

athletics and Paralympic sports.[335] Cricket has been growing in popularity,[336] as a result of refugees returned from Kenya, where they had learned to play the game.[337] Cycling, traditionally seen largely as a mode of transport in Rwanda, is also growing in popularity as a sport;[338] and Team Rwanda have been the subject of a book, Land of Second Chances: The Impossible Rise of Rwanda's Cycling Team and a film, Rising from Ashes.[339][340]

The Gahanga Cricket Stadium

Rwandans have been competing at the

APR FC of Kigali, having won 13 of the last 17 championships.[352] Rwandan clubs participate in the Kagame Interclub Cup for Central and East African teams, sponsored since 2002 by President Kagame.[353]

World heritage

In 2023, at the 45th session of the

World Heritage List.[354][355]

See also

Notes

  1. Kinyarwanda: u Rwanda [u.ɾɡwaː.nda] ⓘ)[14]

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General and cited references

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