War of the League of Cambrai
War of the League of Cambrai | |
---|---|
Part of the | |
Result |
Franco-Venetian victory |
- 1508–1510:
- League of Cambrai:
- France
- Ferrara
- 1511–1513:
- Holy League:
- France
- Republic of Venice
- Ferrara
- Pope Julius II
- Louis XII
- Gian Giacomo Trivulzio
- Louis de la Trémoille
- Charles II d'Amboise
- Maximilian I
- Alfonso I d'Este
- Cardinal d'Este
- Ferdinand II
- Louis XII
- Charles II d'Amboise
- Alfonso I d'Este
The War of the League of Cambrai, sometimes known as the War of the Holy League and several other names,
The war started with the
The Veneto–Papal alliance eventually expanded into the Holy League, which drove the French from Italy in 1512; disagreements about the division of the spoils, however, led Venice to abandon the coalition in favor of an alliance with France. Under the leadership of Francis I, who had succeeded Louis on the throne of France, the French and Venetians would regain the territory they had lost in a campaign culminating in the Battle of Marignano in 1515; the treaties of Noyon (August 1516) and Brussels (December 1516), which ended the war the next year, would essentially return the map of Italy to the status quo of 1508.
Timeline
This is an overview of notable events including battles during the war.
- Prelude (1506–1508)
- July 1506 – March 1507: A popular revolt in Genoa expelled the city's pro-French nobility to Savona. By late November 1506, king Louis XII of France was planning a military expedition to bring Genoa back under pro-French control.[2]
- 28 March 1507: The Genoese revolutionary council declared war on the king of France, who had already reached Piedmont with his army.[2]
- 22–29 April 1507: Siege of Genoa. French victory over the Genoese revolutionaries. Louis arranged a triumphal entry and forced the Genoese to swear loyalty to him.[3]
- April 1507: Imperial Diet of Konstanz. Maximilian I declared Louis XII of France an enemy of Christianity and a threat to Italy, and requested (and received) funding for an Italienzug. Louis XII denied seeking war with the Empire or the Papacy.
- 14 May 1507: Louis XII left Genoa and held a similar triumphal entry in Milan.[4]
- 28 June 1507: Louis XII of France and Ferdinand II of Aragon met for six days at Savona to lay the groundwork for the League of Cambrai against Venice, most likely intending to include Maximilian and the Pope into the coalition.[5] Ferdinand departed for Spain on 3 July.[6]
- July 1507: The Imperial Diet promised Maximilian 12,000 troops for his Italienzug. Because this was not enough to challenge the French in Milan, as he originally intended, Maximilian later ended up deciding to attack Venice instead on the grounds of refusing to ally with him against France, and refusing him passage to Rome.[7]
- Maximilian's Italienzug (1508)
- 24 January 1508: Maximilian requested permission to march to Rome through Venetian territory, but the Venetians suspected the ruse and prepared for war.
- 4 February 1508: Maximilian I proclaimed himself Holy Roman Emperor in Trento.
- Early February 1508: Maximilian declared war on Venice. Venice requested France, then still their ally, to send aid, which Chaumont did in the form of several thousand troops from Milan.[7]
- 20–21 February 1508: Imperial troops invaded Venice, sacking Ampezzo and besieging the Castello di Botestagno.
- 23 February 1508: Imperials captured Pieve di Cadore.
- 24 February 1508: Skirmish at Chiusa di Venas, Imperial victory over Venice.
- 27 February 1508: Imperials captured Castello di Botestagno.
- 2 March 1508: Battle of Cadore. Venetian victory over the Emperor.[7]
- March–May 1508: Successful Venetian counter-offensives into Imperial territory. The Venetians captured Trieste on 6 May.[8]
- Summer 1508: Venice agreed to a separate three-year truce with Maximilian without the knowledge or consent of Louis of France. Angered by this 'betrayal', Louis sought to punish the Venetians, and started contemplating a Franco-German alliance with Maximilian against Venice.[8]
- War of the League of Cambrai proper (1508–1510)
- Late November – 10 December 1508: The League of Cambrai was formally concluded.[8]
- 10 May 1509: Battle of Casaloldo: Venetian victory over Mantua (Cambrai).
- 14 May 1509: Battle of Agnadello. French (Cambrai) victory over Venice.
- 15–30 September 1509: Siege of Padua. Venetian victory over the League of Cambrai.
- 26–29 November 1509: Battle of the citadel of Vicenza. Venetian victory over the Imperials (Cambrai).
- 22 December 1509: Battle of Polesella. Ferrarese (Cambrai) victory over Venice.
- February 1510: Pope Julius II left the League of Cambrai, and signed peace with Venice.
- May 1510: French, Ferrarese, and Imperial troops invaded Venetian territory.
- July 1510: The Pope and Venice formed an alliance and went on a counter-offensive. The League of Cambrai fell apart, leaving only France and Ferrara at war with Venice and the Pope.
- Ferrarese War (1510–1511)
- August 1510: Failed Papal attack on Ferrara.
- 17 August 1510: Papal–Venetian troops captured Modena.
- October 1510: French troops were repulsed at Bologna.
- December 1510: Papal troops captured Concordia.
- 2–19 January 1511: Siege of Mirandola (1511). Papal victory over Ferrara.
- 23 May 1511: French troops captured Bologna after an anti-Papal revolt.
- Late May 1511: French troops recaptured Mirandola.
- War of the Holy League proper (1511–1514)
- October 1511: Pope Julius II proclaimed the new Holy League against France, including the Papal States, Venice, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, England, and the Swiss Confederacy.
- 18 February 1512: Sack of Brescia. French victory over Venice.
- 11 April 1512: Battle of Ravenna (1512). Franco-Ferrarese victory over the Pope.
- May 1512: Holy League troops drove French troops out of Milan.
- June 1512 – June 1515: Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre. Spanish victory over France.
- 10 August 1512: Battle of Saint-Mathieu. English victory over France.
- August–December 1512: Holy League negotiations on territorial changes failed. Venice left the League, Milan joined the League.
- 29 December 1512: Swiss mercenaries installed Maximilian Sforza as Duke of Milan.
- 23 March 1513: Venice and France concluded an alliance to partition northern Italy between them.
- 6 June 1513: Battle of Novara (1513). Milanese–Swiss victory over France.
- 16 August 1513: Battle of the Spurs (Guinegate). Anglo-Imperial victory over France.
- 8–13 September 1513: Siege of Dijon. Swiss victory over France.
- 9 September 1513: Battle of Flodden (Flodden Field, Branxton). English victory over Scotland (allied with France). Scotland abandoned France and left the war.
- 7 October 1513: Battle of La Motta (1513). Spanish and Imperial victory over Venice (allied with France).
- Francis I's First Italian War (1515–1516)
- 13–14 September 1515: Battle of Marignano (Melegnano). Decisive Franco-Venetian victory over Switzerland and Milan.
- 4 October 1515: French troops captured Milan and dethroned Sforza.
- December 1515: Peace negotiations began.
- August 1516: Treaty of Noyon.
- December 1516: Treaty of Brussels.
Prelude
In the aftermath of the
Julius II, having secured his own control of the Papal armies by arresting and imprisoning Cesare, first in Bologna and later in Ravenna, quickly moved to re-establish Papal control over the Romagna by demanding that Venice return the cities she had seized.[13] The Republic of Venice, although willing to acknowledge Papal sovereignty over these port cities along the Adriatic coast and willing to pay Julius II an annual tribute, refused to surrender the cities themselves.[14] In response, Julius concluded an alliance with France and the Holy Roman Empire against Venice; the death of Isabella I of Castile (26 November 1504) and the resulting collapse of relations between the parties soon dissolved the alliance (the Treaty of Blois (1504), which had ended the Italian Wars of 1499–1504, became a 'dead letter'), but not before Venice had been induced to abandon several of the cities, except for the three key towns of Rimini, Faenza and Cervia.[15] Julius, although unsatisfied with his gains, did not himself possess sufficient forces to fight the Republic; for the next two years he instead occupied himself with the reconquest of Bologna and Perugia, which, located between Papal and Venetian territory, had in the meantime assumed a status of quasi-independence.[16]
In 1507, Julius returned to the question of the cities in Venetian hands; once again rebuffed by the Senate, he encouraged
League of Cambrai
In the spring of 1508, the Republic provoked Julius by appointing her own candidate to the vacant
The danger to the Republic of Venice was imminent, so in April 1509 the
The Venetian collapse was complete.[29] Louis proceeded to occupy Venetian territory as far east as Brescia without encountering any significant resistance; the Venetians lost all the territory that they had accumulated in northern Italy during the previous century.[30] The major cities that had not been occupied by the French—Padua, Verona, and Vicenza—were left undefended by Pitigliano's withdrawal, and quickly surrendered to Maximilian when Imperial emissaries arrived in the Veneto.[31] Julius, having in the meantime issued an interdict against Venice that excommunicated every citizen of the Republic, invaded the Romagna and captured Ravenna with the assistance of Alfonso d'Este, Duke of Ferrara.[32] D'Este, having joined the League and been appointed Gonfalonier on 19 April, seized the Polesine for himself.[33]
The newly arrived Imperial governors, however, quickly proved to be unpopular.
In mid-November, Pitigliano returned to the offensive,
Faced with a shortage of both funds and men, the Senate decided to send an embassy to Julius in order to negotiate a settlement.[43] The terms insisted on by the Pope were harsh: the Republic lost her traditional power to appoint clergy in her territory, as well as all jurisdiction over Papal subjects in Venice, the Romagnan cities that had prompted the war were to be returned to Julius, and reparations were to be paid to cover his expenses in capturing them.[44] The Senate argued over the terms for two months, but finally accepted them in February 1510; even before the Venetian ambassadors had presented themselves to Julius for absolution, however, the Council of Ten had privately resolved that the terms had been accepted under duress and were therefore invalid, and that Venice should violate them at the earliest opportunity.[45]
This apparent reconciliation between Venice and the Pope did not stop multiple French, Ferrarese, and Imperial armies from invading Venetian territory in May 1510.
Veneto-Papal alliance
Julius, meanwhile, had become increasingly concerned by the growing French presence in Italy; more significantly, alienated from Alfonso d'Este by friction over a licence for a salt monopoly in the Papal States and Alfonso's continued forays against Venetian forces to secure his recently reacquired Polesine, he had formulated plans to seize the Duchy of Ferrara, a French ally, and to add its territory to the Papal States.[49] His own forces being inadequate for the venture, the Pope hired an army of Swiss mercenaries, ordering them to attack the French in Milan; he also invited Venice to ally with him against Louis.[50] The Republic, facing a renewed French onslaught, readily accepted the offer.[51]
By July 1510, the new Veneto-Papal alliance was on the offensive.[52] An initial attack on French-occupied Genoa failed, but Venetian troops under Lucio Malvezzo finally drove the French from Vicenza in early August, and a joint force commanded by Francesco Maria della Rovere, the Duke of Urbino, captured Modena on 17 August.[53] Julius now excommunicated Alfonso d'Este, thus justifying an attack on the Duchy of Ferrara itself; in anticipation of his coming victory, the Pope traveled to Bologna, so as to be nearby when Ferrara was taken.[54]
The French army, however, had been left unopposed by the Swiss (who, having arrived in Lombardy, had been bribed into leaving by Louis) and was free to march south into the heart of Italy.[55] In early October, Charles II d'Amboise advanced on Bologna, splitting the Papal forces; by 18 October, he was only a few miles from the city.[56] Julius now realized that the Bolognese were openly hostile to the Papacy and would not offer any resistance to the French; left with only a detachment of Venetian cavalry, he resorted to excommunicating d'Amboise, who had in the meantime been convinced by the English ambassador to avoid attacking the person of the Pope and had thus withdrawn to Ferrara.[57]
In December 1510, a newly assembled Papal army conquered Concordia and besieged the fortress of Mirandola; d'Amboise, marching to relieve the latter, fell ill and died, briefly leaving the French in disarray; the pope took personal command of the siege, and Mirandola fell in January 1511.[58] Alfonso d'Este, meanwhile, confronted and destroyed the Venetian forces on the Po River, leaving Bologna isolated once more; Julius, afraid of being trapped by the French, departed the city for Ravenna.[59] Cardinal Francesco Alidosi, whom he left behind to command the defense of the city, was no better liked by the Bolognese than Julius himself had been; and when, in May 1511, a French army commanded by Gian Giacomo Trivulzio approached, the citizens of Bologna revolted, expelled Alidosi, and opened their gates to the French.[60] Julius blamed this defeat on the Duke of Urbino, who, finding this quite unfair, proceeded to murder Alidosi in full view of the Papal guard.[61]
Holy League
In October 1511, Julius proclaimed a Holy League against France.
Louis now appointed his nephew,
By May 1512, the French position had deteriorated considerably.[68] Julius had hired another army of Swiss mercenaries; they descended on Milan, bringing with them Maximilian Sforza, who was determined to regain control of the Duchy for his family.[69] The French garrisons abandoned the Romagna (where the Duke of Urbino quickly captured Bologna and Parma) and retreated to Lombardy, attempting to intercept the invasion.[70] By August, the Swiss had combined with the Venetian army and forced Trivulzio out of Milan, allowing Sforza to be proclaimed Duke with their support; La Palice was then forced to withdraw across the Alps.[71]
In 1512 Thomas Grey, 2nd Marquess of Dorset led an unsuccessful English military expedition to France to reconquer Aquitaine, which England had lost during the Hundred Years' War. Ferdinand of Aragon gave none of the support he had promised. While Ferdinand delayed and tried to persuade Dorset to help him to attack Navarre instead of Aquitaine, the English army's food, beer, and pay ran out, many took to wine and became ill, and the army mutinied. Back in England, Dorset had to face a trial.[72]
In late August, the members of the League met at
Franco-Venetian alliance
In late May 1513, a French army commanded by
The rout at Novara inaugurated a period of defeats for the French alliance. English troops under Henry VIII besieged
Meanwhile, Alviano, unexpectedly left without French support, retreated into the Veneto, pursued closely by the Spanish army under Cardona; while the Spanish were unable to capture Padua in the face of determined Venetian resistance, they penetrated deep into Venetian territory and by late September were in sight of Venice itself.[88] Cardona attempted a bombardment of the city that proved largely ineffective; then, having no boats with which to cross the Venetian Lagoon, turned back for Lombardy.[89] Alviano, having been reinforced by hundreds of volunteers from the Venetian nobility, pursued Cardona and confronted him outside Vicenza on 7 October; in the resulting Battle of La Motta, the Venetian army was decisively defeated, with many prominent noblemen cut down outside the city walls as they attempted to flee.[90] Cardona and Alviano continued to skirmish in the Friuli for the remainder of 1513 and through 1514.[91]
The death of Louis XII on 1 January 1515 brought
Aftermath
After the victory at Marignano, Francis advanced on Milan, capturing the city on 4 October and removing Sforza from the throne.
Maximilian held out, making another attempt to invade Lombardy; his army failed to reach Milan before turning back, and by December 1516, he had entered into negotiations with Francis.
Notes
- ^ The conflict comprising the 1508–1516 portion of the Italian Wars may be divided into three separate wars: the War of the League of Cambrai (1508–1510), the War of the Holy League (1510–1514), and Francis I's First Italian War (1515–1516). The War of the Holy League may be further divided into the Ferrarese War (1510), the War of the Holy League proper (1511–1514), an Anglo-Scottish War (1513) and an Anglo-French War (1513–1514). Certain historians (notably Phillips and Axelrod) refer to each of the component wars separately, while others (notably Norwich) treat the entire conflict as a single war.
- ^ a b Mallett & Shaw 2012, p. 83.
- ^ Mallett & Shaw 2012, pp. 84–85.
- ^ Mallett & Shaw 2012, p. 85.
- ^ John S. C. Abbott, The Romance of Spanish History (Harper & Brothers, 1869) p. 286
- ^ "Cambray (League)", in The Manual of Dates: a Dictionary of Reference to All the Most Important Events in the History of Mankind to be Found in Authentic Records, ed. by George H. Townsend (Routledge, Warne & Routledge, 1862) p. 171
- ^ a b c Mallett & Shaw 2012, p. 86.
- ^ a b c Mallett & Shaw 2012, p. 87.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 56–57.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 390.
- ^ Guicciardini, History of Italy, 168–175.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 391.
- ^ Shaw, Julius II, 127–132, 135–139.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 85.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 392.
- ^ Guicciardini, History of Italy, 189–190.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 392.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 393.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 393.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 394–395. The appointment was in keeping with prevailing custom, but Julius considered it an act of defiance against his authority.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 87.
- ^ Guicciardini, History of Italy, 196–197; Shaw, Julius II, 228–234
- ^ Berenzi, Angelo. Storia di Pontevico. pp. 366–369.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 89.
- ^ Baumgartner, Louis XII, 195; Norwich, History of Venice, 398.
- ^ Taylor, Art of War in Italy, 119.
- ^ Baumgartner, Louis XII, 195; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 89–90.
- ^ Baumgartner, Louis XII, 195–196; Norwich, History of Venice, 399–400.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 400.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 90–91; Norwich, History of Venice, 400.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 91; Norwich, History of Venice, 401.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 401–402.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 95; Norwich, History of Venice, 401–402.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 403–404.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 94; Norwich, History of Venice, 404.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 404.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 94; Norwich, History of Venice, 404.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 404–405.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 405.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 94–95; Norwich, History of Venice, 405.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 95; Norwich, History of Venice, 405–406.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 95; Norwich, History of Venice, 406.
- ^ Baumgartner, Louis XII, 209; Norwich, History of Venice, 406–408.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 408.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 408–409.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 96.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 96; Norwich, History of Venice, 410.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 96; Norwich, History of Venice, 410–414.
- ^ Rowland, "A summer outing in 1510".
- ^ Baumgartner, Louis XII, 210–211; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 97–98; Norwich, History of Venice, 414–415.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 415.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 97–98; Norwich, History of Venice, 416.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 415–416.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 416.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 416.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 416.
- ^ Baumgartner, Louis XII, 214; Norwich, History of Venice, 417.
- ^ Guicciardini, History of Italy, 216; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 100; Norwich, History of Venice, 417.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 100; Norwich, History of Venice, 417.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 100–101; Norwich, History of Venice, 417–418.
- ^ Guicciardini, History of Italy, 227; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 101; Norwich, History of Venice, 418.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 103; Norwich, History of Venice, 419–420.
- ^ Baumgartner, Louis XII, 219; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 103; Hutchinson, Young Henry, 159.
- ^ Baumgartner, Louis XII, 218; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 104.
- ^ Baumgartner, Louis XII, 219–220; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 104–105; Norwich, History of Venice, 420.
- ^ Guicciardini, History of Italy, 244; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 106; Norwich, History of Venice, 421.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 106–108; Norwich, History of Venice, 422.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 422–423.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 423.
- ^ Baumgartner, Louis XII, 222–223; Norwich, History of Venice, 423.
- ^ Baumgartner, Louis XII, 222–223; Norwich, History of Venice, 423–424; Oman, Art of War, 152.
- ^ Vergil, Polydore, The Anglica Historia of Polydore Vergil, AD 1485–1537 (translated by Denys Hay), Office of the Royal Historical Society, Camden Series, London, 1950.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 424.
- ^ Hibbert, House of Medici, 211–214; Hibbert, Florence, 168; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 117–118.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 116.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 118–119.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 424.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 118–119; Norwich, History of Venice, 424–425.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 425.
- ^ Baumgartner, Louis XII, 229; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 121; Norwich, History of Venice, 428.
- ^ Baumgartner, Louis XII, 229; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 121; Norwich, History of Venice, 428.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 122; Oman, Art of War, 153–154; Taylor, Art of War in Italy, 123.
- ^ Baumgartner, Louis XII, 233; Goubert, Course of French History, 135; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 122–123.
- ^ Baumgartner, Louis XII, 231–233.
- ^ Kamen, Empire, 35.
- ^ Guicciardini, History of Italy, 280.
- ^ Baumgartner, Louis XII, 234.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 123; Norwich, History of Venice, 428–429.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 429.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 123–124; Norwich, History of Venice, 429.
- ^ Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 124–125; Norwich, History of Venice, 429.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 430.
- ^ Knecht, Renaissance Warrior, 72; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 127–128; Norwich, History of Venice, 430.
- ^ Knecht, Renaissance Warrior, 72; Taylor, Art of War in Italy, 67.
- ^ Knecht, Renaissance Warrior, 73–75; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 128; Norwich, History of Venice, 431; Oman, Art of War, 164–165.
- ^ Knecht, Renaissance Warrior, 75–77; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 128–130; Norwich, History of Venice, 431; Oman, Art of War, 165–171.
- ^ Knecht, Renaissance Warrior, 77; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 130; Norwich, History of Venice, 431.
- ^ Guicciardini, History of Italy, 290; Knecht, Renaissance Warrior, 82–83; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 131; Norwich, History of Venice, 431–432.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 432.
- ^ Knecht, Renaissance Warrior, 84; Norwich, History of Venice, 432.
- ^ Knecht, Renaissance Warrior, 85; Mallett and Shaw, The Italian Wars, 132–133; Norwich, History of Venice, 432.
- ^ Norwich, History of Venice, 432.
- ^ Knecht, Renaissance Warrior, 165–175.
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