Western Chalukya literature in Kannada
A large body of Western Chalukya literature in the
Important literary contributions in Kannada were made not only by court poets, noblemen, royalty, ascetics and saints who wrote in the marga (mainstream) style,[13] but also by commoners and artisans, including cobblers, weavers, cowherds and shepherds who wrote in the desi (folk) style.[14] These Vachana poets (called Vachanakaras) revolutionised Kannada literature, rejecting traditional themes that eulogised kings and noblemen, and writing didactic poems that were closer to the spoken and sung form of the language. In addition to hundreds of male poets, over thirty female poets have been recorded, some of whom wrote along with their husbands.[15][16]
Background
Political developments
Developments | Date |
---|---|
Dominance of Jain devotional writings, in champu metre[5] |
973–1150 |
Early Secular writings by Jain authors[17] | 1000–1100 |
Early Vachana poems by Veerashaivas, in native metres[18] |
1040–1120 |
Consolidation of Kannada grammar[19] | 1042 or 1145 |
Veerashaiva movement and the proliferation of Vachana literature[20][21] |
1150–1183 |
Jain–Veerashaiva literary competition[22] |
1150–1200 |
Towards the end of the 10th century, a new
A century before these political developments, the age of great Sanskrit and Prakrit epics and classics had come to an end. This productive period had made available a vast corpus of literature that could be expressed in the local language of Kannada.[27] Kannada, which had flourished both as a language of political discourse and literature in the Rashtrakuta court, found enthusiastic support from the Chalukya kings. The influential Jains, who according to historian A.S. Altekar may have comprised 30 percent of the population, not only dominated the cultural landscape of 9th and 10th century Karnataka, but were also eager to encourage literature in the local language.[28] According to Professor S.N. Sen, a research fellow at the Indian council of historical research, Kannada literature under the Chalukyas reached a "perfection of form".[29][30] Scholars Sheldon Pollock and Jan Houben have claimed that 90 percent of the Chalukyan royal inscriptions are in Kannada, a virtual displacement of Sanskrit as the language of courtly discourse.[31][32]
Mainstream literature
For a few centuries after Kavirajamarga ("Royal path for poets", c. 850), the earliest available Kannada literary work, Jain writings had adhered to Sanskritic models that had been recognised by the state as the path for future Kannada writers, while relegating native poetic forms (compositions such as Chattana and Bedande)[33] to subordinate status.[34] The stranglehold that the Sanskritic models had over Kannada literature is best exemplified by Ranna's lexicon Rannakanda (990), where native day-to-day Kannada words had been translated into Sanskrit. This implied that the pure form of the local language was not viewed as equal to Sanskrit, from the cosmopolitan viewpoint.[35] Kannada writings by Jain authors thus used impressive Sanskrit-derived verses interspersed with prose to extol the virtues of their patron kings, who were often compared to heroes from the Hindu epics. While Adikavi Pampa (Pampa Bharata, 941) compared his patron, the feudatory Chalukya King Arikesari, to Pandava prince Arjuna, in Vikramarjuna Vijaya, his version of the Hindu epic Mahabharata, Ranna (983) found it suitable to compare his patron, King Satyashraya, to Pandava prince Bhima.[36]
Folk literature
The mainstream literary style was to lose popularity during the mid-12th century Kalachuri rule, due to the rise of revolutionary notions about the social and cultural order. The Veerashaivas, acting in protest, used the pure form of Kannada language in their poems; moreover, they encouraged writers from lower castes to participate and eliminated themes that had been considered formal by the king and the monastery.
Other developments
At about this time, adding to pressure from the popularity of the Vachana canon in the northern Kannada-speaking region,
Contemporaneous to these developments,
Kannada writings
Jain Court literature
Age of Ranna
Noted Kannada poets and writers in Western Chalukya Empire (973-1200 CE) | |
Ranna | 982 |
Nemichandra | 990 |
Manasija | 10th c. |
Chandrabhatta | 10th c. |
Madiraja | 10th c. |
Kavitavilasa | 10th c. |
Kannamayya | 10th c. |
Jayakirti | 1000 |
Chandraraja | 1025 |
Durgasimha | 1031 |
Chavundaraya II | 1025 |
Shridharacharya | 1049 |
Nagavarma II | 1042 |
Santinatha | 1068 |
Gunachandra | 1070 |
Nagavarmacharya | 1070 |
Harivarma | 1070 |
Narayana Deva | 11th c. |
Gunavarma | 1070-1100 |
Nayasena | 1112 |
Kondugoli Keshiraja | 1120 |
Prince Kirtivarma | 1125 |
Brahmashiva | 1125 |
Karnaparya | 1145 |
Jagaddala Somanatha | 1150 |
Some noted Kannada Vachana poets (from more than 300) (11th-12th c. CE) | |
Madara Chennaiah | 11th c. |
Dohara Kakkaiah | 11th c. |
Devara Dasimaiah | 1040 |
Duggale | 1040 |
Allama Prabhu | 1160 |
Basavanna
|
1160 |
Akka Mahadevi | 1160 |
Gangambike | 1160 |
Neelambike | 1160 |
Nagalambike | 1160 |
Chennabasava | 1160 |
Siddharama
|
1160 |
Madivala Machayya | 1160 |
Ambigere Chowdiah | 1160 |
Madara Dhooliah | 1160 |
Hendada Mariah | 1160 |
Turugahi Ramanna | 1160 |
Kannadi Remmitande | 1160 |
Revanna Siddha | 1160 |
Urilinga Peddi | 1180 |
Bahuroopi Chowdaiah | 11-12th c. |
Satyakka | 1160 |
Amuge Rayamma | 1160 |
Kadive Remavva | 1160 |
Mukthayakka | 1160 |
Princess Bonta Devi | 1160 |
The late 10th century was a period of consolidation for the fledgling empire. Founding King Tailapa II and his successor, King Satyashraya, warred against their neighbours: the Shilharas of south
Unlike Pampa who glorifies Arjuna and Karna in his writing, Ranna eulogises his patron King Satyashraya and favourably compares him to Bhima, whom he crowns at the end of the Mahabharata war. He calls Bhima's adversary Duryodhana mahanubhava ("a great person"). The work contains some of the earliest examples of elegiac verses (called shoka gita or charama gita) in the Kannada language, noted among which is one piece that describes the heart-rending lamentation (called karuna rasa or "sentiment of pathos") of Duryodhana on seeing the slain bodies of his brother Duhshasana, his inseparable friend in joy and sorrow, Karna, and Arjuna's valorous son Abhimanyu.[57] The effect given to the writing, the language, the diction and the style maintained throughout the narration has earned Ranna a place among the most notable authors of Kannada literature.[56] Ascribed also to Ranna is the earliest available dictionary in Kannada language called the Rannakanda (990), of which only eleven verses still exist.[58] His other notable writings were the Chakeresvaracharita and the Parashuramacharitha. According to historian Suryanath Kamath, the latter work, which is now lost, may have been a eulogy of Chavundaraya, whom the poet admired.[59] For his literary contributions, the title Kavi Chakravathi ("Emperor among poets") was bestowed upon Ranna by his patron king.[60]
Another notable writer from the close of the 10th century, Nemichandra, wrote the Kaviraja kunjara and Lilavati (c. 990) with Prince Kavdarpa Deva of Jayantipura (modern Banavasi, Karnataka) and Princess Lilavati as the protagonists of the latter poem.[61] Other writers from the close of the 10th century whose works are now lost but have been praised by the Chalukya minister Durgasimha (1031) are Kavitavilasa (patronised by King Jayasimha II), Madiraja, Chadrabhatta, Kannamayya and Manasija.[62][63][64] Inscriptions such as the Kuppatur and Haveri records eulogize popular writers such as Harivarma (1070) and Narayana Deva respectively.[65]
Early secular writings
According to Kannada scholar R. Narasimhacharya, despite the production of some important secular writings, repeated
Chavundaraya II, a
There were other notable writers from the latter part of the 11th century. Shantinatha, patronised by King Someshvara II, wrote the poem Sukumaracharita in c. 1068.
Vikrama era
The 12th century heralded an age of peace and prosperity. Cultural and literary developments received impetus during the rule of
Brahmashiva, the court poet of King Vikramaditya VI, earned the title Kavichakravarti ("Emperor among poets") from his patron for his writing Samayaparikshe ("Analysis of the doctrine", c. 1125). In this philosophical writing, containing touches of propagandist satire and humor, the author seeks to prove the virtues of Jainism superior to all other contemporary religions.
After the death of Vikramaditya VI, his successors, Someshvara III and Jagadhekamalla II continued to support poets and writers.[85] Karnaparya's account of the life of the 22nd tirthankar Neminatha, the Neminathapurana (c. 1145) in champu metre, includes details of the Hindu epic Mahabharata and of the god Krishna from a Jain outlook.[86] Jagaddala Somanatha's Karnataka Kalyanakaraka (1150), a translation of the Sanskrit writing Kalyanakaraka by Pujyapada, is the earliest writing on medicine in Kannada. It prescribes an entirely vegetarian and non-alcoholic diet.[86][87]
Consolidation of grammar
Among available works on Kannada grammar, a part of Kavirajamarga (850) forms the earliest framework.[88] The occurrence of the term purvacharyar in some contexts of the writing may be a reference to previous grammarians or rhetoricians.[48] Though Nagavarma II is credited to be the author of the earliest exhaustive Kannada grammar, the author mentions his predecessors, Sankavarma and Nagavarma-I (the extant Chhandombudhi, "Ocean of Prosody", c. 984[89]) as path-makers of Kannada grammar.[48] The exact time when grammarian Nagavarma-II lived is debated by historians. Until the discovery of Vardhamana Puranam ("Life of Varadhama", c. 1042) written in Kannada by an author who goes by the same name, it was broadly accepted by scholars including E.P. Rice, R. Narasimhacharya and K.A. Nilakanta Sastri that Nagavarma II lived in the mid-12th century (1145) and was also the Katakacharya ("poet laureate") of Chalukya King Jagadhekamalla II.[90][91][92] However, of late, the Encyclopaedia of Indian literature, published by the Sahitya Akademi (1988), and scholars D.R. Nagaraj and Sheldon Pollock concur that Nagavarma II lived in the mid-11th century and was the poet laureate of Chalukya King Jayasimha II, who had the epithet Jagadekamalla ("Lord of the world").[48][93]
Irrespective of when Nagavarma II lived, it is accepted that few scholars in the history of Kannada literature made important contributions in as many subjects as he did.
Bhakti literature
Early poets
The meteoric rise of
Names of three poets from the 11th century and some of their poems are available. Madara Chennaiah, a cobbler turned saint, is considered by H.S. Shiva Prakash as the first Vachana poet, and was held in high esteem by latter day poets of the 12th century, including Basavanna. Only ten of Chennaiah's poems, expressing his resentment of the
Rebel literature
In the mid-12th century, the
A centre of religious discussions called Anubhava Mantapa ("Hall of experience") in Kalyani became the conclave where devotees gathered to discuss their mystic experiences.[106] Here, they expressed their devotion to Shiva in simple poems called Vachanas. These were spontaneous utterances of rhythmic, epigrammatical and satirical prose emphasising the worthlessness of riches, rituals and book learning.[20][21] Many of these poems are anonymous, but the authors are identifiable by the unique divine name of the god Shiva that is invoked in the poem.[107]
- Basavanna
Born to Brahmin parents in the town of
Information about his life and achievements come from the many Kannada writings, the earliest of which were written just after his death. Hoysala poet Harihara's Basavarajadevara ragale is the first known biography on Basavanna. Vijayanagara poet-writer Bhima Kavi's Basavapurana (1369), Singiraja's Amala Basavacharite (1500), Vijayanagara minister Lakkanna Dandesa's Shiva Tatwachintamani (1425–1450) are some of the important sources.[109] The cornerstone of Basavanna's philosophy was "work-worship is heaven", the rejection of mere worship of God and the acceptance of one's own body as a temple of God. Basavanna strongly advocated a life of complete commitment to work.[110][111] As a poet, he finds a pride of place in Kannada literature. His deftly written poems end with the word "Kudalasangama" which literally means "God of the confluence of two rivers", the poet's version of the god Shiva. About 1,300 such poems have survived,[112] and have been described by H.S. Shiva Prakash as lyrical, satirical, deeply contemplative and self-critical.
In one satirical poem, Basavanna decries the hypocrisy of a snake charmer and his wife, who on their way to find a bride for their son cancel the journey when they come across a bad omen – another snake charmer and his wife.[113] Though Basavanna himself was a minister under the patronage of the king, some of his poems betray his contempt towards kingship and deep devotion to the god Shiva.[114][115] A poem by Basavanna:[113]
I am one. Five are burning me.
Unbearable, the fire above
I cannot stand. When
A tiger is dragging a wild bull away
Can you not rescue, Kudalasangamadeva.
- Allama Prabhu
Allama, also known as Allama Prabhu (lit, "Allama the master") was a mendicant saint-poet who took to the path of asceticism after the untimely death of his wife Kamalate. He was born into a family of hereditary temple performers and was himself an expert on the drum (called maddale) in Balligavi, a town of great antiquity in the
Wandering around grief-stricken by his wife's death, he came across a saint called Animisayya who initiated him into asceticism.Ascribed to Allama are 1,321 extant poems, each of which end with the word "Guhesvara" (lit, "Lord of the Cave", a form of the god Shiva), for it is said Allama found enlightenment in a cave.
While Basavanna's zeal and influence led to the formation and popularity of the Veerashaiva movement in Kalyani, it was Allama who was the undisputed spiritual authority presiding over the gatherings of the devotees.
I saw
The fragrance fleeing
When the bee came,
What a wonder!
I saw
Intellect fleeing
When the heart came.
I saw
The temple fleeing
When God came.
- Akka Mahadevi
Prominent among the more than thirty women poets was Akka Mahadevi. Born to a merchant family in the town Udatadi (or Udugani) in the Shivamogga district, and possibly married against her wishes to a feudal chief called Kausika, she renounced worldly pleasures, opting for a life of devotion and asceticism.
The 430 short poems written by her, in a language that depicts her love for her divine lover "Channa Mallikarjuna" (lit, "Beautiful Mallikarjuna", a name for the god Shiva), and the 15th-century anthology, the Sunyasampadane, are the main sources of information about her life.[128] Her poetry is characterised by scorn for physical possessions and detachment from worldly affairs. A popular poem written by her describes the life of a silk worm which spins a cocoon, becomes entangled in the threads, and eventually dies because it cannot extricate itself – the silk worm is compared to a person and the silk threads, to worldly desires. In a poem of puns, the poet prays that her god, whom she describes as the "Lord of fragrant Jasmines", may cut through the cocoon of desires so she may become free like a butterfly.[129]
In addition to poetry, she is credited with two short writings, Mantrogopya and Yogangatrividhi, the latter written in the native tripadi metre, describing the various stages of spiritual enlightenment.[130] Tradition has it that Akka Mahadevi preferred to wear no clothes, a form of renunciation which in her own words was the "most exalted spiritual state".[131] She died while still in her twenties in a plantain grove in the holy city of Srisailam.[132] A poem by Akka Mahadevi:[127]
You are the whole forest
And all the birds and beasts in the forest.
O Channamallikarjuna,
You inform all things
But why don't you show your face to me?
- Other poets
Basavanna's nephew, Chennabasava, is more popular as a strategist and a theologian. Apart from authoring some notable and lengthy Vachana poems, he wrote on
Artisan poets included Molige Maraiah, a wood cutter; Madivala Machayya, a washerman; Ambigere Chowdiah, a ferryman; Madara Dhooliah, a cobbler; Hendada Mariah, a toddy tapper; Turugahi Ramanna, a cowherd; Kannadi Remmitande, a mirror maker; and Revanna Siddha, a shepherd, as but a few in a long list of poets.[135] Poets Dakkeya Bommaiah, Bahuroopi Chowdaiah, Kalaketaiah and Nageya Maritande were ritual street performers and their poems reflect images from their trade.[136]
Several women poets made important contributions including: Basavanna's sister Nagalambike and his two wives, Gangambike and Neelambike, though Neelambike seems to have been the more prolific. Some female poets were wives of male poets in the Veerashaiva congregation. Notable among them are Satyakka, whose poems compare in quality to those of Akka Mahadevi,[137] Kelavve (a dalit poet), whose poems scorn at the upper caste people, Mahadevi and Lingamma, who wrote poems in a mystic language, Amuge Rayamma and Akkamma, who penned poems on the hypocrisy of religious pretences, Kadire Remavva (a spinner), who employed a cryptic language called bedagu in her poems, and Muktayakka, who is known for her debates with the patron saint Allama himself.[137] Other names worthy of mention are Lakkamma, Ketaladevi, Guddavve and a princess called Bontadevi.[137]
Decline
Challenging the very core of the caste-based society, the Veerashaivas conducted a marriage between an upper caste Brahmin bride and a lower caste Shudra groom. The resulting confrontation between rebellious Veerashaivas and the conservative upper classes lead to the assassination of King Bijjala II and the eviction of most devotees, including Basavanna, from Kalyani.[138] The successors of King Bijjala II were weak, prompting Chalukya Someshvara IV, ruling from Annigeri, to attempt rebuilding his empire by invading Kalyani in 1183. Though his invasion was successful, his overall efforts failed and the dynasty was ended by the Seuna rulers who drove Someshvara IV into exile in Banavasi in 1189.[4][139] Though these turbulent events caused a setback to the Veerashaiva gatherings and creation of poems, the movement had set roots in the Kannada soil and regained popularity in the 15th century under the patronage of the rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire.[106][138]
Literature after the Chalukyas
The post-Chalukya period is characterised by the popularity of Shaiva and Vaishnava devotional writings, though secular and courtly topics written in native metres continued to flourish. Native metres in vogue were the shatpadi (six-line verse), the tripadi, the ragle (rhymed couplets) and the sangatya (compositions meant to be sung to the accompaniment a musical instrument).[140] Overall, Kannada writings began to change from marga ("formal", due to Sanskritic influence) to desi ("vernacular") and become more accessible to the common man.[12]
This change is apparent in the writings of the Hoysala court poets, some of whom are noted for pioneering works in native metres.
After the fall of the Kalachuri empire, the Vachana poetic tradition halted temporarily. However, by the 14th century, the Veerashaivas who held influential positions in the Vijayanagara Empire were exerting their influence, especially during the reign of King Deva Raya II (or Prouda Deva Raya).[147] Although this period is not as famous for the proliferation of the Vachana poems as the 12th century was, contemporary writers adopted the preachings of the saints and devotees of the bygone era and made them the protagonists of their writings. Having found a rallying point to spread their faith, they began an era of commentaries, anthologies and biographies.[147][148] Famous among biographies were Bhimakavi's Basavapurana (1369), Singiraja's Mala-Basavapurana (or Singirajapurana, 1500) on the life of Basavanna, Chamarasa's Prabhulingalile (1425) on the life of Allama Prabhu and Virupaksha Pandita's Chenna Basavapurana (1584), an account of Chennabasava.[149] Among a long list of anthologies, four versions of the Shunyasampadane are the most well-known. The first version, completed in 1400 by Shivaganaprasadi Mahadevaiah, was written in the form of a dialogue between the protagonist, saint Allama Prabhu, and other well-known Veerashaiva devotees. Later versions were compiled by Halage Arya (1500), Gummalapura Siddhalingayati (1560) and Gulur Siddhaveeranodaya (1570).[150] Writing Vachana poems was popularised again from the mid-16th century, though Kannada language had to wait till the 17th century to discover its greatest modern poet in this genre. Sarvajna (lit. "The all knowing", 16th or 17th century), a mendicant poet-moralist and social reformer, left an indelible imprint on Kannada literature with his didactic poems, numbering about 2,100 in all. Written using the simple native tripadi metre to instruct the country folk, these poems cover a vast range of topics, from caste and religion to economics and administration, from arts and crafts to family life and health. Sarvajna's poems constitute some of Kannada's most popular works.[151][152][153]
Four noted Brahmin writers of the Vijayanagara empire,
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- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 175
- ^ Nagaraj (2003), p. 354
- ^ a b Subramanian (2005), pp. 213–215
- ^ Siva Prakash (1997), p. 179
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 180
- ^ Nagaraj (2003), p. 357
- ^ Ramanujan (1973), p. 145
- ^ Sastri (1955), p. 363
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 617
- ^ Ramanujan (1973), p. 144
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 179–180
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 956
- ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 177
- ^ Kloppenborg and Hanegraaff (1995), pp. 123–124
- ^ Kloppenborg and Hanegraaff (1995), p. 126
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 178
- ^ Kloppenborg and Hanegraaff (1995), p. 128
- ^ Kloppenborg and Hanegraaff (1995), p. 133
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 180–182
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 181
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 182
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 183
- ^ a b c Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 184–185
- ^ a b Kamath (2001), p. 153
- ^ Sastri (1955), p. 180
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 164, 203; Rice E. P. (1921), p. 59
- ^ Kamath (2001), pp. 133–134
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), pp. 403–404, 551–552; Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 179–205
- ^ Sastri (1955), p. 362; Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 1181
- ^ Rice E.P.(1921), pp. 43–44; Sastri (1955), p. 359
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 4629
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 20, 62
- ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 188
- ^ Sastri (1955), p. 362
- ^ Sastri (1955), pp. 362–363
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 189
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1934), p. 24
- ^ Prasad (1987), pp. 16–25
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 191
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 208–209; Sahitya Akademi (1987), pp. 36–39; Sastri (1955), pp. 364–365
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 166–167, 193–194
- ^ Iyer (2006), p. 93; Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 196–197
- ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 198–200; Sastri (1955), p. 365
Sources
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External links
- "History of Kannada Literature – I". Retrieved 8 March 2008.
- Rice E.P. (1982). History of Kannada Literature. ISBN 978-81-206-0063-8. Retrieved 8 March 2008.