Byzantine–Mongol Alliance
A Byzantine-Mongol Alliance occurred during the end of the 13th and the beginning of the 14th century between the Byzantine Empire and the Mongol Empire.[2][a][b] Byzantium attempted to maintain friendly relations with both the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate realms, who were often at war with each other. The alliance involved numerous exchanges of presents, military collaboration and marital links, but dissolved in the middle of the 14th century.
Diplomatic overtures
Soon after the
Following the Mongol partition of the Sultanate of Rum between the pro-Mongol Kilij Arslan IV in the east and the pro-Nicaean Kaykaus II in the west, the Nicaean emperor Theodore Doukas Laskaris engaged in active diplomacy with the Ilkhanate, receiving a Mongol embassy in 1257. Through Laskaris' shrewd deception, the embassy was convinced that Nicaea was a large and powerful state with a formidable army and covered entirely by mountains, thus making it exceedingly difficult for the Mongols to subjugate. The Mongol ambassadors were therefore content with Nicaea remaining independent in exchange for Rum being recognized as a Mongol protectorate. The embassy also lead to negotiations for a marriage alliance between the two rulers, however Laskaris died in 1258 before the alliance could be finalized.[7]
Alliance under Michael VIII (1263–1282)
Emperor
He signed a treaty in 1266 with the Mongol Khan of the Kipchak (the
According to a 1267 letter by
The kings of France and Navarre, taking to heart the situation in the Holy Land, and decorated with the Holy Cross, are readying themselves to attack the enemies of the Cross. You wrote to us that you wished to join your father-in-law (the Greek emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos) to assist the Latins. We abundantly praise you for this, but we cannot tell you yet, before having asked to the rulers, what road they are planning to follow. We will transmit to them your advice, so as to enlighten their deliberations, and will inform your Magnificence, through a secure message, of what will have been decided.
— 1267 letter from Pope Clement IV to Abaqa[11]
In 1265,
Alliance under Andronikos II (1282–1328)
After 1295, Andronikos II offered Ghazan a marital alliance, in exchange for Mongol help to fight against the Turcomans at the Oriental frontier of the Byzantine Empire. Ghazan accepted the offer and promised to stop the incursions.[14] The death of Ghazan in 1304 was mourned by the Byzantines.[15]
This alliance would continue under Ghazan's successor,
End of friendly relations
Under Andronikos III relations seem to have turned even more conflictual. In 1341, the Mongols planned to attack Constantinople, and Andronikos III had to send an embassy to stop the attack.[12]
See also
Notes
Citations
- ^ Shepherd, William R. Historical Atlas, 1911.
- ^ Sicker 2000, p. 132.
- ^ Dagron et al. 2001, p. 309.
- ^ a b Jackson 2005, pp. 202–203.
- ^ A. A. Vasiliev History of the Byzantine Empire, 324-1453, p. 531
- ^ Richard, p. 377.
- ^ Angelov, pp. 169-171.
- Baibars(…) rallied the Occidentals to this alliance [with the Mongols], to which the Mongols also convinced the Byzantines to adhere."
- ^ Cambridge, p. 304.
- ^ Canal and Runciman, p. 320.
- ^ Quoted in Grousset, p. 644.
- ^ a b c Jackson, p. 203.
- ^ Heath and McBride, p. 24.
- Pachymeres.
- ^ Luisetto, p. 145.
- ^ Heath and McBride, pp. 24–33.
Sources
- Angelov, Dimiter (2019). The Byzantine Hellene: The Life of Emperor Theodore Laskaris and Byzantium in the Thirteenth Century. ISBN 978-1-108-48071-0.
- Dagron, Gilbert; Mondrain, Brigitte; Deroche, Vincent; Cheynet, Jean-Claude (2001). XXe Congrès international des études Byzantines: Collège de France - Sorbonne, 19 - 25 août 2001: pré-actes: XXe Congrès international des études Byzantines, Collège de France-Sorbonne, 19-25 août 2001. Comité d'organization du XXe Congrès international des études Byzantines, Collège de France. ISBN 2-9517158-0-3.
- Heath, Ian and McBride, Angus. Byzantine Armies: AD 1118–1461. Osprey Publishing, 1995, ISBN 1-85532-347-8.
- ISBN 0-246-10559-3.
- ISBN 0-19-504652-8.
- Cheynet, Jean-Claude and Vannier, Jean-François. "Les premiers Paléologues". Etudes prosopographiques. Publications de la Sorbonne, 1986, ISBN 2-85944-110-7.
- Richard, Jean. Histoire des Croisades [History of the Crusades]. Paris: Editions Fayard, 1996.
- Jackson, Peter (2005). The Mongols and the West, 1221-1410. Pearson Longman. ISBN 0-582-36896-0.
- Luisetto, Frédéric. Arméniens & autres Chrétiens d'Orient sous la domination Mongole (in French). Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner S.A., 2007, ISBN 978-2-7053-3791-9.
- Sicker, Martin (2000). The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-275-96892-8.
- Canal, Denis-Armand and Runciman, Steven. Histoire des Croisades [History of the Crusades]. Editions Dagorno, 1998, ISBN 2-910019-45-4.