Timeline of the Mongol Empire

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This article is about events involving the Mongol Empire from 1162 to 1271. For earlier Mongol events, see Timeline of Mongols prior to the Mongol Empire. For an overview of all Mongol-led military campaigns, see Mongol invasions and conquests.
Expansion of the Mongol Empire

This is the timeline of the

Northern Yuan dynasty
, a far less powerful successor entity, until 1634.

12th century

1160s

Year Date Event
1162
Hoelun[1]

1170s

Year Date Event
1171
Hoelun is left to care for their children by herself.[2] She takes them to the Khentii Mountains, where they live for several years.[3]
1173
Temüjin becomes anda, blood brothers, with Jamukha of the Jajirad (Jadaran) clan[4]
1177
Temüjin leaves to claim Börte. Börte's father gives him a black sable cloak as dowry, which he later gives to Toghrul of the Keraites to gain his favor. Soon after the Merkits abduct Börte and Temüjin flees. [5]
1178
Temüjin assembles an allied force of over 20,000 with his ally Toghrul and sworn blood brother Jamukha, who attack the Merkits and rescue Börte.[3][5]

1180s

Year Date Event
1185
Temüjin in fear of the rising power of Jamukha[3]
1187
Temüjin allies himself with the Khongirad to wage war on the Tatars.[3]

1190s

Year Date Event
1191
Merkits.[6]
1192 Jin dynasty starts constructing fortifications in the northwest to prevent depredations by the Mongols[7]
1193
Temüjin's leadership and wages war on him.[8]
1194
Temüjin clash at the Dalan Baljut, which ends inconclusively. However Jamukha's rash and vindictive behavior towards his allies alienates him.[8]
1196
Mongol troops carry out a punitive expedition against the Tatars[9]

13th century

1200s

Year Date Event
1201
Temüjin promote Jamukha to gür-khan[4]
1202 Mongols exterminate the Tatars[10]
1203
Temüjin splits with Toghrul[11]
spring The
Temüjin at Qalaqaljid Sands[12]
autumn
Temüjin defeats Toghrul at Jeje'er Heights[12]
Temüjin creates the Kheshig, an elite military guard[13]
1204
Temüjin defeats the Naimans, Merkits, and Jamukha; Merkit leaders and Jamukha flee to the Altai Mountains[13]
fall
Temüjin pursues Jamukha and defeats him in several battles. Eventually Jamukha's allies betray him and turn him over to Temüjin, who kills him by breaking his back.[13]
The
Temüjin[14]
1205 spring
Temüjin of the Mongols raids Western Xia's border settlements[15]
1206 spring Kokochu, also known as Teb Tengri, chief shaman of the Mongols, bestows upon Temüjin the title of Genghis Khan, "Universal Ruler" of the Mongol Empire, at the kurultai of Burkhan Khaldun, sacred mountain of the Mongols[16]
1207 Mongol conquest of Western Xia: Genghis Khan sacks Wulahai, a Western Xia garrison along the Yellow River near modern Wuyuan[17]
Jochi subjugates the 'forest peoples' - Kyrgyz, Oirat, and Buryat[18]
1208 Toq'toa Beki of the
Merkits is killed by Mongols and Uyghurs[18]
1209 autumn Mongol conquest of Western Xia: Genghis Khan penetrates Western Xia from Wulahai and defeats a Tangut army before laying siege to Zhongxing, however the Mongols accidentally flood their own camp in the process of breaking the Yellow River dikes and are forced to retreat[19]
Qocho, Qayaligh, and Almaliq submit to Genghis Khan; Almaliq and the Issyk-Kul region given to Chagatai[20]

1210s

Year Date Event
1210 Mongol conquest of Western Xia: Emperor Xiangzong of Western Xia submits to the Mongol Empire and hands over a daughter in marriage to Genghis Khan as well as a large supply of camels, falcons, and woven textiles; a Mongol garrison is left at Wulahai[19]
Kokochu is killed by Qasar in a wrestling match[21]
1211
Ögedei, and Chagatai invade Inner Mongolia[22]
October Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty: Jebe takes Juyong Pass from the Jin dynasty[23]
winter Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty: Mongol forces retreat from Jin territory[24]
Karluks rebel against the Qara Khitai and defect to the Mongol Empire[25]
1212 February Battle of Yehuling: Genghis Khan and Muqali crush the Jin army led by Wanyan Jiujin, Duji Sizhong, and Hushahu[24]
1213 5 January Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty: Jebe takes the Eastern Capital[23]
July–August Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty: Genghis Khan crushes a Jin army led by Zhuhu Gaoqi[26]
autumn Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty: Jochi, Ögedei, and Chagatai ravage Hebei and Shanxi[27]
November Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty: Genghis Khan and Jebe pass through the Zijing Gap[28]
1214 31 March Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty: Genghis Khan lays siege to the Central Capital[29]
11 May Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty: Jin dynasty becomes a tributary and agrees to hand over a daughter of the previous emperor; the Mongols lift the siege[29]
July
Tatar defectors lay siege to the Central Capital[28]
December Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty: Muqali wipes out Jin centers in Liaoning and southern Manchuria[28]
1215 31 May Battle of Zhongdu: Mongol Empire takes the Central Capital and places the Khitan Shimo Ming'an and Jabar Khoja in charge of the city[29]
23 September Kublai is born to Tolui and Sorghaghtani Beki[30]
1216 Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai: Jebe seizes Kashgar from the Qara Khitai and Kuchlug flees[31]
Subutai raids the Kipchaks[32]
1217 Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty: Genghis Khan appoints Muqali as viceroy of North China and leaves for Mongolia[33]
Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty: Muqali removes Jin presence in the steppes[28]
1218 autumn
Muhammad II of Khwarezm's forces clash with a Mongol army led by Jochi and Subutai, the battle ending inconclusively[34]
winter
Muslim merchant delegation sent by Genghis Khan arrives at Otrar and the governor Inalchuq kills them, seizing their goods for himself; a sole survivor reaches Mongolia and alerts Genghis, who sends three more envoys to demand custody of Inalchuq - they are also killed[34]
Mongol conquest of Western Xia: Mongol Empire lays siege to Zhongxing and Emperor Xiangzong of Western Xia flees west; his son and officials make peace with the Mongols[35]
Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai: Shepherds in Badakhshan capture Kuchlug and hand him over to Jebe, who beheads him; so ends the Qara Khitai[36]
1219 January Goryeo becomes a tributary of the Mongol Empire[37]
fall
Ögedei and Chagatai take Otrar and massacres its population; Genghis Khan dispatches Jochi to conquer Syr Darya and another army to conquer Fergana[38]
Western Xia refuses to send auxiliaries for the Mongol Empire's western campaigns[39]

1220s

Further information: Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe
Year Date Event
1220 15 February
Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia: Genghis Khan takes Bukhara and places Yelü Ahai in control of Transoxiana[38]
16 March
Muhammad II of Khwarezm flees to Nishapur; Genghis Khan dispatches Jebe and Subutai to destroy the sultan[38]
May
Terken Khatun and family in the Zagros Mountains[40]
winter
Muhammad II of Khwarezm dies[38]
1221 March
Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia: Tolui destroys Merv[38]
April
Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia: Jochi, Chagatai, and Ögedei destroy Urgench while Tolui takes Nishapur and Herat[38]
spring
Shikhikhutug in the Hindu Kush[38]
Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia: Genghis Khan takes Termez[38]
Siege of Bamyan (1221): Genghis Khan takes Bamyan; Chagatai's son Mutukan dies in the process[22]
November
Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, who swims across the Indus River and escapes[38]
1222 Subutai and Jebe conquer the Kuban steppe and crush the Cumans[32]
September Battle of Khunan: Subutai and Jebe defeat the Kingdom of Georgia in battle and mortally injure their king George IV of Georgia on their way north of the Caucasus.
1223 Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty: Muqali dies and the Mongol Empire loses control of Henan, central Shaanxi, and southeast Shandong[28]
spring Genghis Khan returns to Mongolia[38]
31 May Battle of the Kalka River: Subutai and Jebe defeat the forces of Mstislav Mstislavich, Mstislav III of Kiev, Daniel of Galicia, Mstislav II Svyatoslavich, and Köten before sacking Novhorod-Siverskyi and heading back to Mongolia[41]
Mongol Empire sacks Sudak[42]
1224 Battle of Samara Bend: Bulgars ambush Subutai and Jebe near Saqsin[43]
Goryeo stops paying tribute[37]
1226 February
Gansu Corridor[39]
November Mongol conquest of Western Xia: Mongol Empire sacks Lingzhou[35]
4 December Mongol conquest of Western Xia: Genghis Khan crosses the Yellow River and defeats a Tangut relief column[35]
1227 September
Emperor Mozhu of Western Xia surrenders to the Mongol Empire and is promptly executed; so ends the Western Xia[44]
Jochi dies and is succeeded by his son Batu Khan[27]
August Genghis Khan dies near the Jing River and Tolui becomes regent[45]
1229 13 September Ögedei Khan is elected ruler of the Mongol Empire at a kurultai near the Kherlen River[46]
Ural River[43]

1230s

Further information: Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe
Year Date Event
1230 Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty: Doqolqu and Subutai attack Tong Pass and are defeated by Wanyan Heda[28]
autumn
Fengxiang[28]
1231 August
Khwarazmian dynasty[40]
Mongol invasions of Korea: Sartai subjugates Goryeo, however the Mongol overseers are immediately killed afterwards[37]
"
Mongol warship.[47]
1232 spring Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty: Tolui invades Henan and Ögedei Khan pushes through the Tong Pass[28]
13 February Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty: Tolui kills Wanyan Heda[28]
8 April Mongol siege of Kaifeng: Subutai lays siege to Kaifeng[28]
Mongol invasions of Korea: Sartai heads back to Goryeo and dies from an arrow[48]
Mongol invasions of Georgia: Chormaqan subjugates Azerbaijan[49]
Tolui is struck by sickness and dies[50]
Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty: Reusable fire lance barrels made of durable paper are employed by Jin troops during the Mongol siege of Kaifeng.[47]
1233 5 March Mongol siege of Kaifeng: Kaifeng surrenders[28]
December Siege of Caizhou: Mongol Empire lays siege to Caizhou[28]
1234 9 February Siege of Caizhou: Emperor Aizong of Jin abdicates to a distant relative, Hudun, who becomes Emperor Mo of Jin, and commits suicide; Emperor Mo of Jin is killed by the Mongols; so ends the Jin dynasty[51]
Ögedei Khan announces his plans to conquer Goryeo, the Song dynasty, and Cumania[52]
1235 Ögedei Khan constructs Karakorum[52]
1236 Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria: Subutai destroys Bolghar and takes Saqsin[53]
Mongol invasions of Georgia: Chormaqan subjugates Georgia and Armenia[49]
1237 21 December Siege of Ryazan: Batu, Orda, Güyük, and Möngke sack Ryazan and Suzdal[54]
Large bombs requiring several hundred men to hurl using trebuchets are employed by
Anhui Province).[55]
1238 4 March Battle of the Sit River: Mongol Empire kills Yuri II of Vladimir[54]
spring Siege of Kozelsk: Batu struggles to take Kozelsk for two months before Kadan and Büri take it in three days[56]
Mongol Empire conquers Crimea[42]
1239 3 March
Mongol invasion of Rus': Mongol Empire sacks Pereiaslav[54]
18 October
Mongol invasion of Rus': Mongol Empire sacks Chernihiv[54]

1240s

Further information: Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe and Timeline of the Golden Horde
Year Date Event
1240 6 December
Kievan Rus[54]
Mongol invasions of Tibet: Doorda Darkhan sacks Reting Monastery[57]
1241 9 April
Sulisław of Cracow, and Boleslaus Děpoltic[58]
11 April
Croatia, and Knights Templar[58]
December Mongol invasion of Europe: Kadan crosses the Danube[58]
11 December Ögedei Khan dies on a hunting trip after lengthy drinking and his wife Töregene Khatun becomes regent[59]
1242 Mongol invasion of Europe: Mongol Empire forces Bulgaria to pay tribute[60]
spring
Volga River and his brother Orda Khan returns to Mongolia[58]
Mongol invasions of Anatolia: Mongols take Erzurum[61]
Chagatai Khan dies and his grandson Qara Hülegü succeeds him[62]
1243 26 June Battle of Köse Dağ: Baiju defeats Kaykhusraw II and subjugates the Sultanate of Rum and Empire of Trebizond[63]
1244 The Ayyubid dynasty gives tribute to the Mongols[61]
Badr al-Din Lu'lu' of Mosul submits to the Mongol Empire[64]
1246 Temüge tries to seize the throne without a kurultai but fails[65]
24 August Güyük Khan is elected ruler of the Mongol Empire at a kurultai on the Kherlen River[66]
Güyük Khan appoints Yesü Möngke as head of the Chagatai Khanate[67]
1248 20 April Güyük Khan dies on his way to confront Batu Khan and his wife Oghul Qaimish becomes regent[68]

1250s

Year Date Event
1251 1 July Möngke Khan is elected ruler of the Mongol Empire at a kurultai in the Khentii Mountains[69]
fall
Hulagu Khan and Kublai Khan in charge of West Asia and China, respectively[70]
Möngke Khan appoints Qara Hülegü as head of the Chagatai Khanate, who dies soon after, and his wife Orghana becomes regent for her young son Mubarak Shah[67]
1252 summer
Hulagu Khan the invasion of the Middle East[71]
fall
Mongol forces depart from Shanxi and reach the Tao River[71]
Mongol forces under the Chinese general Wang Dechen advance into Sichuan and occupy Lizhou[71]
Kublai Khan advances with the main force towards the Dali Kingdom[71]
Niccolò and Maffeo Polo set off from Venice for China[72]
Mongol invasions of Tibet: Qoridai invades Tibet as far as Dangquka[73]
1253 Kublai Khan's forces set up headquarters on the Jinsha River in western Yunnan and march on Dali in three columns[71]
September
Lizhou[74]
Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism[75]
1254 January The Dali Kingdom is conquered, although its dynasty remains in power, and the king, Duan Xingzhi, is later invested with the title of Maharajah by Möngke Khan; so ends the Dali Kingdom[76]
winter
Uryankhadai in charge of campaigns against local Yi tribes[76]
Kublai Khan starts building an independent power base in Henan and Jingzhao where Chinese-style government is implemented[77]
Mongol raids on the northern Song border intensify[78]
Mongol invasions of Korea: Jalairtai Qorchi plunders Goryeo[37]
1255 Mongol invasions of Korea: Mongol Empire takes Sinuiju and attacks coastal islands[37]
Batu Khan dies and is succeeded by his son Sartaq Khan, who dies soon after, and then Ulaghchi[79]
1256 summer Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty: Möngke Khan declares war on the Song dynasty, citing imprisonment of Mongol envoys as casus belli[78]
20 November
Hulagu Khan takes Alamut[80]
Mongols defeat Kaykaus II at Aksaray and enthrone Kilij Arslan IV[81]
Daniel of Galicia expels Mongol garrisons from his territory[58]
Kublai Khan constructs a capital north of the Luan River[82]
1257 Uriyangkhadai, son of Subutai, pacifies Yunnan and returns to Gansu[76]
winter Mongol invasions of Vietnam: Uriyangkhadai returns to Yunnan and invades the kingdom of Đại Việt (ruled by the Trần dynasty)[76]
Möngke Khan launches an investigation into Kublai Khan's activities and subjects officials in Henan and Shanxi to interrogation, executes Kublai's chief pacification officer in Shanxi, and imposes large levies on Shanxi[78]
Muslim, succeeds him[83]
1258 17 January
Tigris River which suffers a defeat against Aybak[84]
18 January
Siege of Baghdad (1258): Baiju floods the enemy camp and attacks, driving them back[84]
29 January
Hulagu Khan lays siege to Baghdad[84]
1 February
Siege of Baghdad (1258): Mongol siege weapons breach Baghdad's Ajami tower[85]
3 February
Siege of Baghdad (1258): Mongol forces take Baghdad's walls[85]
10 February
Siege of Baghdad (1258): Al-Musta'sim, his sons, and 3,000 dignitaries surrender[85]
13 February
Hulagu Khan takes the title of Ilkhan, meaning "obedient khan"[85]
20 February
Siege of Baghdad (1258): Al-Musta'sim and his family are executed, so ends the Abbasid Caliphate[85]
Kublai Khan returns to Mongolia to placate his brother[78]
spring Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty: Möngke Khan's forces reach Gansu[74]
Mongol suzerainty and king Trần Thái Tông sends his son as hostage to the imperial court[76]
March Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty: Mongols capture Chengdu[86]
Buqa Temür takes Wasit[80]
fall
Lizhou[74]
Mongol invasions of Korea: Wonjong of Goryeo goes to the Mongol court as hostage[87]
1259 January Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty: Möngke Khan's forces take Yazhou[74]
February
Diaoyu Fortress[88]
July
Diaoyu Fortress[89]
August Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty: Taghachar attacks Huainan[74]
12 August Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty: Möngke Khan dies from dysentery or a wound inflicted by a Song trebuchet, forcing Mongol campaigns throughout Eurasia and China to come to a halt[90]
September Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty: Kublai Khan's forces cross the Yangtze and lays siege to Ezhou, however he receives news of Möngke Khan's death and Ariq Böke's mobilization, forcing hm to withdraw and deal with his brother[91]
Wonjong of Goryeo goes back to Goryeo to become ruler - henceforth becoming a Mongol tributary[87]
Second Mongol invasion of Poland: Berke and Boroldai invade Poland and Daniel of Galicia flees, however his sons and brother Vasilko of Galicia join the Mongols to plunder Lithuania and Polish territories[58]
Golden Horde elements in Bukhara rebel and Alghu suppresses them[83]

1260s

Year Date Event
1260 January
Hulagu Khan takes Aleppo from An-Nasir Yusuf; so ends the Ayyubid dynasty[80]
The Principality of Antioch submits to the Mongol Empire[92]
2 February Sack of Sandomierz (1260): Berke and Boroldai sack Sandomierz[58]
5 May Kublai Khan convenes a kurultai at Kaiping, which elects him as ruler of the Mongol Empire; so ends the centralized Mongol Empire[93]
May Toluid Civil War: Ariq Böke proclaims himself great khan of the Mongol Empire at Karakorum[93]
6 June
Hulagu Khan receives news of Möngke Khan's death and retreats to Ahlat[94]
26 July
Mamluks advance into Palestine and drive the Mongols from Gaza[94]
spring
Hulagu Khan's son Yoshmut and commander Elege of the Jalayir take Mayyafaraqin and Mardin[80]
August Kitbuqa sacks Sidon[92]
3 September
Mamluks defeats Mongol forces under Kitbuqa and push them back to the Euphrates[94]
10 December
Baibars defeats a Mongol expedition into Syria[80]
Hulagu Khan[95]
Toluid Civil War: Alghu, a grandson of Chagatai Khan, deposes Mubarak Shah, an appointee to the Chagatai Khanate of the Mongol Empire[90]
Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty: Kublai Khan's envoy Hao Jing proposes that the Song dynasty acknowledge Kublai as Son of Heaven in return for autonomy and gets jailed[96]
Kublai Khan appoints Drogön Chögyal Phagpa as Imperial Preceptor[75]
Ajall Shams al-Din Omar, from Bukhara, is appointed a commissioner of a district in north China[97]
Kublai Khan issues three currencies but the paper Jiaochao, backed by silver, prevails; total value of paper money amounts to 73,352 silver ingots[98]
1261 Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty: Kublai Khan sends funds to Li Tan of Shandong to make war on the Song dynasty[99]
Franks visit Kublai Khan's court at Shangdu[100]
Badr al-Din Lu'lu' dies and his son Malik Salih kills all the Christians, causing a rebellion in Mosul and Cizre[80]
1262 22 February
Mongol-allied warlord of Shandong, Li Tan, defects to the Song dynasty[101]
August Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty: Kublai Khan's Chinese generals Shi Tianze and Shi Chu crush Li Tan's forces and capture him; Li Tan is trampled to death by horses[99]
summer Rebellions in Mosul and Cizre are suppressed[80]
November
Hulagu Khan kills his vizier Saif-ud-Din Bitigchi and replaces him with Shams al-Din Juvayni[102]
Mamluks and invades Azerbaijan[95]
Mazandaran to his son Abaqa and Azerbaijan to his other son Yoshmut[102]
Kublai Khan prohibits nomads' animals from roaming on farmlands[103]
Kublai Khan appoints Ahmad Fanakati to the Central Secretariat to direct state finances[104]
1263 13 January
Terek River[102]
Kublai Khan reestablishes the Privy Council to oversee the Imperial Bodyguards and Kheshig[105]
1264 Toluid Civil War: Kublai Khan defeats Ariq Böke[95]
Buddhists[106]
Mongol invasion of Byzantine Thrace: Berke attacks Thrace and secures the release of Kayqubad II[107]
1265 8 February
Hulagu Khan dies and is succeeded by his son Abaqa Khan[108]
Mongol forces clash in Sichuan[96]
Niccolò and Maffeo Polo arrive at Kublai Khan's court[72]
1266 9 July Kublai Khan appoints his son Nomukhan Beiping Wang (prince of the pacification of the north)[109]
Berke dies in Tbilisi and is succeeded by his grandnephew Mengu-Timur[108]
Alghu dies and is succeeded by Mubarak Shah, who is deposed by Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq[83]
Daidu, known to the Chinese as Dadu, or Khanbalikh to the Turks[110]
1267 Drikung Kagyu rebels against the Supreme Control Commission and Kublai Khan dispatches forces to crush them[75]
Kublai Khan orders the construction of an Imperial Ancestral Temple[111]
Kublai Khan designates Xu Heng as chancellor of the Guozijian[112]
Caffa[113]
1268
Mongol forces under Aju lay siege to Xiangyang[114]
The rebellion in Tibet is suppressed and Drogön Chögyal Phagpa is reinstated along with a Mongol pacification commissioner[75]
Kublai Khan creates the "General Administration for the Supervision of Ortogh" (Muslim merchant association) to lend money at low interest to the ortogh[98]
1269 Kaidu–Kublai war: Kaidu, a grandson of Ögedei Khan, rebels against Kublai Khan[95]
Im Yeon engineers a coup against Wonjong of Goryeo and Kublai Khan sends 3,000 troops to vanquish the rebels and reinstate Wonjong[115]
Golden Horde assists Vladimir-Suzdal in evicting the Germans from Narva[107]
'Phags-pa script, which Kublai Khan designates as the state script[116]
Niccolò and Maffeo Polo return to Europe[72]

1270s

Year Date Event
1270 Mongol invasions of Tibet: Mongol forces crush the rebellion in Tibet and implement regular administration[73]
Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq of the Chagatai Khanate invades the Ilkhanate but suffers defeat[117]
Kublai Khan founds the Institute of Muslim Astronomy[118]
1271 Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq dies and Kaidu takes control of the Chagatai Khanate, installing Negübei as puppet khan[67]
Kublai Khan declares himself emperor of the Yuan dynasty and for the first time, annual sacrifices at the altars of Soil and Grain are done in the Chinese style; so ends the unified Mongol Empire[111][119]

Gallery

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ Mote 2003, p. 403.
  2. ^ Mote 2003, p. 415-416.
  3. ^ a b c d Mote 2003, p. 419.
  4. ^ a b Atwood 2004, p. 259.
  5. ^ a b Sverdrup 2017, p. 42.
  6. ^ Sverdrup 2017, p. 44.
  7. ^ Twitchett 1994, p. 246.
  8. ^ a b Sverdrup 2017, p. 47.
  9. ^ Twitchett 1994, p. 251.
  10. ^ Sinor 1990, p. 29.
  11. ^ Mote 2003, p. 421.
  12. ^ a b Atwood 2004, p. 425.
  13. ^ a b c Mote 2003, p. 422.
  14. ^ Mote 2003, p. 424.
  15. ^ Twitchett 1994, p. 206.
  16. ^ Twitchett 1994, p. 343.
  17. ^ Mote 2003, p. 254.
  18. ^ a b Sinor 1990, p. 30.
  19. ^ a b Twitchett 1994, p. 208.
  20. ^ Atwood 2004, p. 445.
  21. ^ Atwood 2004, p. 531.
  22. ^ a b Atwood 2004, p. 81.
  23. ^ a b Atwood 2004, p. 265.
  24. ^ a b Atwood 2004, p. 224.
  25. ^ Biran 2005, p. 75.
  26. ^ Atwood 2004, p. 281.
  27. ^ a b Atwood 2004, p. 416.
  28. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Atwood 2004, p. 277.
  29. ^ a b c Atwood 2004, p. 620.
  30. ^ Twitchett 1994, p. 415.
  31. ^ Biran 2005, p. 83.
  32. ^ a b Atwood 2004, p. 455.
  33. ^ Atwood 2004, p. 393.
  34. ^ a b Atwood 2004, p. 431.
  35. ^ a b c Atwood 2004, p. 591.
  36. ^ Atwood 2004, p. 446.
  37. ^ a b c d e Atwood 2004, p. 319.
  38. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Atwood 2004, p. 307.
  39. ^ a b Twitchett 1994, p. 210.
  40. ^ a b Atwood 2004, p. 308.
  41. ^ Atwood 2004, p. 283.
  42. ^ a b Atwood 2004, p. 121.
  43. ^ a b Atwood 2004, p. 53.
  44. ^ Twitchett 1994, p. 213.
  45. ^ Atwood 2004, p. 100.
  46. ^ Twitchett 1994, p. 367.
  47. ^ a b Andrade 2016, p. 46.
  48. ^ Atwood 2004, p. 32).
  49. ^ a b Atwood 2004, p. 196.
  50. ^ Twitchett 1994, p. 372.
  51. ^ Twitchett 1994, p. 264.
  52. ^ a b Atwood 2004, p. 418.
  53. ^ Atwood 2004, p. 51.
  54. ^ a b c d e Atwood 2004, p. 479.
  55. ^ Andrade 2016, p. 47.
  56. ^ Atwood 2004, p. 36.
  57. ^ Atwood 2004, p. 538.
  58. ^ a b c d e f g Atwood 2004, p. 79.
  59. ^ Twitchett 1994, p. 382.
  60. ^ Atwood 2004, p. 73.
  61. ^ a b Jackson 2005, p. 74.
  62. ^ Atwood 2004, p. 82.
  63. ^ Atwood 2004, p. 331.
  64. ^ Atwood 2004, p. 323.
  65. ^ Atwood 2004, p. 363.
  66. ^ Twitchett 1994, p. 385.
  67. ^ a b c Atwood 2004, p. 83.
  68. ^ Twitchett 1994, p. 389.
  69. ^ Twitchett 1994, p. 392.
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Sources

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