Cultural Muslims

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This article is about non-practicing Muslims who still identify with Islam. For Muslims not affiliating with a specific school or branch, see Non-denominational Muslim.
See also: Islam and secularism and Islam and modernity

Cultural Muslims, also known as nominal Muslims,

irreligious[4] individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, ethnic and national heritage, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.[4][5][6][7][8] However, this concept is not always met with acceptance in conservative Islamic communities.[9]

Cultural Muslims can be found across the world, but especially in the Balkans,[10] Central Asia,[11] Europe,[12][13] the Maghreb,[14] the Middle East,[15] Russia,[16] Turkey,[17] Singapore,[18] Malaysia,[19] Indonesia[20] and the United States.[12] In several countries and regions, self-reported Muslims practice the religion at low levels,[21] and for some, their "Muslim" identity is associated with cultural or ethnic or national heritage, rather than merely religious faith.[22]

Definition

Part of a series on
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In Central Asia and in former communist countries, the term "cultural Muslim" came into use to describe those who wished their "Muslim" identity to be associated with certain national and ethnic rituals, rather than merely religious faith.[22]

Malise Ruthven (2000) discussed the terms "cultural Muslim" and "nominal Muslim" as follows:[23]

There is, however, a secondary meaning to Muslim which may shade into the first. A Muslim is one born to a Muslim father who takes on his or her parents' confessional identity without necessarily subscribing to the beliefs and practices associated with the faith, just as a Jew may describe him- or herself as Jewish without observing the Tanakh or Halacha. In non-Muslim societies, such Muslims may subscribe to, and be vested with, secular identities. The Muslims of Bosnia, descendants of Slavs who converted to Islam under Ottoman rule, are not always noted for attendance at prayer, abstention from alcohol, and other social practices associated with believing Muslims in other parts of the world. They were officially designated as

Muslims by nationality to distinguish them from Orthodox Serbs and Catholic Croats under the former Yugoslav communist regime. The label Muslim indicates their ethnicity and group allegiance, but not necessarily their religious beliefs. In this limited context (which may apply to other Muslim minorities in Europe and Asia), there may be no contradiction between being Muslim and being atheist or agnostic
, just as there are Jewish atheists and Jewish agnostics. This secular definition of Muslim (sometimes the terms cultural Muslim or nominal Muslim are used) is very far from being uncontested.

Scholar G. Hussein Rassool (2015) discussed the label "cultural Muslim" as follows:[4]

The label 'Cultural Muslim' is used in the literature to describe those Muslims who are religiously unobservant, secular or irreligious individuals who still identify with the Muslim culture due to family background, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.

A cultural Muslim internalizes the Islamic cultural tradition, or way of thinking, as a frame of reference. Cultural Muslims are diverse in terms of norms, values, political opinions, and religious views. They retain a shared "discourse or structure of feeling" related to shared history and memories.[24]

The concept of a cultural Muslim – someone who identifies as a Muslim yet is not religious – is not always met with acceptance in conservative Islamic communities.[9]

Believer vs. non-believer and practicing vs. not-practicing

In non-Muslim majority countries, Muslims may identify themselves by distinguishing themselves as practicing vs. not-practicing and believer vs. non-believer.[25] Usually, ritual practicing ones are presumed to be believers, while non-practicing ones may be believers or non-believers.

Demographics

In several countries, self-reported Muslims practice the religion at low levels. According to a 2012 survey by Pew Research Center, who interviewed Muslims across the world, about 1% of those interviewed in Azerbaijan, 5% in Albania, 9% in Uzbekistan, 10% in Kazakhstan, 19% in Russia, and 22% in Kosovo said that they attend mosque once a week or more.[26]

According to the same study, only 15% of those who were interviewed in 2012 in

five prayers a day.[21] Approximately 71% of those who were interviewed in Uzbekistan, 64% in Azerbaijan, 54% in Tajikistan, and 50% in Kyrgyzstan never went to a mosque in the 2012 survey.[21]

According to scholar Ibrahim Warde the majority of the Muslims in the Balkans are considered as 'cultural' or 'nominal' Muslims.[10] Scholar Adeeb Khaled cited that the majority of the Muslims in Central Asia and Russia are cultural or nominal Muslims.[11] There are significant segment of Muslim immigrants in the United States and Western Europe[13] who are cultural or nominal Muslims, particularly among second-generation immigrants, where their "Muslim" identity associated with cultural or ethnic heritage rather than merely religious faith.[12] According to an Islamic scholar Tariq Ramadan "most Muslim Westerners do not practice their religion regularly", and some define themselves as merely "cultural" Muslims.[27]

Albania

According to scholars, the majority of Muslims in Albania are 'nominal' or 'cultural' Muslims.[28][29] In a Pew research center survey of Muslim Albanians in 2012, religion was important for only 15%, while 7% prayed, around 5% went to a mosque, 43% gave zakat (alms), 44% fasted during Ramadan and 72% expressed a belief in God and Muhammad.[30]

A medical study from 2008 in Tirana on the relationship between religious observance and acute coronary syndrome found out that 67% of the Muslims interviewed were completely religiously non-observant. The regular attendance of religious institutions (at least once every 2 weeks) was low (6%), and weekly attendance was very low (2%). Frequent praying (at least 2 to 3 times per week) among and among the Muslims we were asked it was around 17%, and praying several times daily (as required of devout Muslims) was rare (2%). Regular fasting during Ramadan was similarly low (5%).[31] Also in Albania according to one study only 36.8% of the males are circumcised, with the rate being 46.5% for those from Muslim background even though for Muslims in general it is an almost universal Islamic custom.[32][33][34][35]

Algeria

Orthodox observance of the faith is much less widespread among Algerians,[36] and Kabyle people are seen as secular rather than religious.[37] Algerian Berbers tend to be less orthodox in their religious practice and have tended to resist the so - called political Islam, and they have been described as "cultural Muslims" or "nominal Muslims".[14][38]

Australia

Many Muslim Australians describe themselves as secular or nominal or cultural Muslims.[39][40]

Azerbaijan

Azerbaijan is a mostly Shia Muslim country,[41] with more than 96% of its population being Muslim.[42] According to scholars the majority of Muslims in Azerbaijan are 'nominal' or 'cultural' Muslims.[43][44][45] A 1998 survey estimated the proportion of ardent believers in Azerbaijan at close to 7 percent, slightly more than the number of declared atheists — almost 4 percent — with the largest numbers falling into the category of those who consider Islam above all as a way of life, without strict observance of prohibitions and requirements, or as a fundamental part of national identity.[46]

According to a 2009

irreligious countries in the Muslim world, with about 54% of respondents indicating the importance of religion in their life as little or none.[47][48] The same poll indicates that only 21% of the respondents have attended religious services.[49] Gallup International indicated that only 34% of Azerbaijanis adhere to religious practices, and ranked Azerbaijan the 13th least religious country from data compiled in 2005, 2008 and 2015.[50] It is a secular country by its constitution,[51] and according to James Reynolds of BBC News one of the goals of the secular government of Azerbaijan is to "check the spread of political Islam".[52]

Bangladesh

Some Bangladeshis are nominal or cultural Muslims,[53][54] in a Pew research center survey of Muslim Bangladeshis in 2012, religion was important for 81%, while 39% prayed, around 53% went to a mosque, 78% gave zakat (alms) and 96% expressed a belief in God and Muhammad.[21]

Belgium

Surveys conducted 1994 and 1996 observed a decrease in religiosity based on lowering mosque participation, less frequent prayer, dropping importance attached to a religious education, etc.[55]: 242  This decrease in religiosity was more visible in younger Muslims; however, other more recent studies show that while participation in religious activities among young Muslims is reducing, they are more likely to identify with Islam culturally.[55]: 243 

A 2005

Université Libre de Bruxelles study estimated that about 10% of the Muslim population in Belgium are "practicing Muslims".[56] A 2009 survey found that the majority of Muslims in Belgium supported "separation between religion and state". A 2010 study found that while Muslims put great emphasis on religious freedom and the overwhelming majority stated people should be free to leave Islam if they wanted, they were less comfortable with the idea of Muslims marrying non-Muslims.[55]
: 244 

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Progressive Muslims".[58] Bosnian Muslims tend to often be described as moderate, secular and European-oriented compared to other Muslim groups.[59] In a Pew research center survey of Muslim Bosnians in 2012, religion was important for 36%, while 14% prayed and around 14% went to a mosque.[21]

Bulgaria

Evgenia Ivanova of the New Bulgarian University stated in 2011 that "religion is not of primary importance to Bulgaria's Muslims." The New Bulgarian University conducted a survey of 850 Muslims in Bulgaria, which found that 48.6% described themselves as religious, 28.5% of which were very religious. Approximately 41% never went to a mosque and 59.3% did not pray at home. About 0.5% believed that disputes should be resolved using Islamic Sharia law and 79.6% said that wearing a veil in school was "unacceptable". More than half of the respondents said cohabitation without marriage was "acceptable", 39.8% ate pork and 43.3% drank alcohol. On the contrary, 88% of respondents said they circumcised their boys and 96% observed Muslim burial practices for their relatives.[60]

According to a 2017 Pew Research Center survey, 33% of Bulgarian Muslims responded that religion is "very important" in their lives.[61] The same survey found that 7% of Bulgarian Muslims pray all five salah,[62] 22% attend mosque at least once a week,[63] and 6% read Quran at least once a week.[64]

Central Asia

Most of the Muslims in Central Asia do not practice their religion daily, and have only nominal or cultural affiliation to Islam.[16] According to a 2012 survey by Pew Research Center, approximately 71% of Muslims in Uzbekistan, 64% Azerbaijan, 54% in Tajikistan, and 50% in Kyrgyzstan never went to a mosque.[21] This was largely due to the religious restriction of Islam under communist rule, during that era all religions had only a nominal presence.[65]

Denmark

In a 2005 survey, 40% of Muslim immigrants and their descendants participated in religious ceremonies/services compared to 60% of Roman Catholic immigrants/ descendants did the same. In a 2008 survey of immigrants from Turkey, Pakistan, ex-Yugoslavia, Iran, Iraq, and Somalia, 37% considered themselves very little/little religious, 33% considered themselves moderately religious, 24% considered themselves very religious.[66] A 2011 survey found that 37% of Danish Muslims were non-practicing Muslims.[67]

Estonia

Scholar estimates the number of 'cultural' nominal Muslims in Estonia in 2008 is around 4,500, meanwhile the numbers of practicing Muslims "hardly exceed several hundred".[68]

France

Zinédine Zidane identifies as a "non-practicing Muslim".[69]

According to a survey, only 33% of

salat),[72] and 70% said they "observe Ramadan".[72] According to expert Franck Fregosi: "Although fasting during Ramadan is the most popular practice, it ranks more as a sign of Muslim identity than piety, and it is more a sign of belonging to a culture and a community",[72] and he added that not drinking alcohol "seems to be more a cultural behavior".[72]

India

Between Nov. 17, 2019, and March 23, 2020, Pew Research Center completed 29,999 face-to-face interviews with non-institutionalized adults ages 18 and older living in 26 states and three union territories across India. The sample includes interviews with 22,975 Hindus, 3,336 Muslims and other faith's where it was found that 79% of the Indian Muslims who were interviewed believe in the existence of God with absolute certainty, 12% believes in the existence of God with less certainty (they are not sure whether God exists or not, can be referred/classified as

atheists by stating that they don't believe in any God.[73][74]

Indonesia

Classical documentations divide Indonesian Muslims between "nominal" Muslims, or

kebatinan.[75][76] According to a study in 1999, 17.3% of the Muslims in Indonesia who took part in it identified themselves as secularists who never or rarely perform Islamic devotions.[77]

Iranian diaspora

The Iranian diaspora has been commonly defined as a largely secular and as cultural or nominal Muslims; many of them do not take fundamental Islamic rituals, such as daily prayers or fasting, and having largely embraced secularism.[78]

Iraq

In

Republic of Turkey since its foundation in 1923.[79]

Israel

According to a study published by

ancestry/culture.[80]

According to the

Israeli Muslims identified as traditional, 32% identified as religious, 17% identified as not religious at all, and 3% identified as very religious.[81]

Kosovo

The overwhelming majority of Kosovo Albanians are cultural/nominal Muslims,[82][83] according to a 2012 survey by Pew Research Center. 13% of Kosovan Muslims who were asked said that they attend Friday prayer once a week and 40% say they never visit their local mosque, while 81% expressed a belief in God and Muhammad.[21]

Lebanon

A significant segment of

Lebanese Muslims has been described as nominally or culturally Muslim; only 35% of Muslims in Lebanon attended mosque once a week according to a 2012 survey by Pew Research Center.[21]

Morocco

Many Moroccans have been described as nominal or cultural Muslims,[84] A survey of about 2,400 Moroccans by Arab Barometer found that due to COVID-19 pandemic the levels of religiosity in Morocco have increased: in 2021 about 6% answered that they are "not religious", 39% said they are "somewhat religious", and 51% "religious",[85] compared to 13% who answered that they are "not religious", 44% said they are "somewhat religious", and 38% "religious" in 2019.[86] In 2019, a lower percentage of individuals aged 18–29 considered themselves "religious," with only 24% identifying as such.[86] By 2021, this number had further declined to just 10% in the same age group.

Netherlands

In 2009, according to a study only 24% of Muslims who took part in the survey in the Netherlands attended mosque once a week according to a survey.[87] According to the same 2004 survey, they found that the importance of Islam in the lives of Dutch Muslims, particularly of second-generation immigrants was decreasing. This observation was based on the reducing participation of younger Muslims in Islamic rituals, organizations, and prayer. The study also predicted that the trend would continue with increasing education and "individualization". However, the study also found that second-generation immigrants attached more importance to religion that the first generation as an "individual experience". The study concluded "the expression of religiosity by Muslim youth was not much different to that of their Dutch Christian or Jewish peers".[88]: 178 

Northern Cyprus

In

circumcised at a young age in accordance with religious beliefs, although, this practice appears more related to custom and tradition than to powerful religious motivation.[93]

Norway

Studies conducted for a TV channel in 2006 found that 18% of Norwegian Muslims reported visiting the mosque once a week. A similar study in 2007 reported that 36% of Muslim youth visit the mosque less than once a month.[94] According to scholar Christine Jacobsen many Muslim youth in Norway are nominal or cultural Muslims, and they identify as such only because of cultural heritage rather than because of religious conviction.[95]

According to a 2007/2008 survey of students at upper secondary schools in Oslo, 25% of Muslims pray regularly while 12% attend religious services weekly.[96]

Russia

According to scholar Mikhail S. Blinnikov the majority of the Muslims in Russia are 'cultural' nominal Muslims, and fewer than 4% of the Russian Muslims who were interviewed "actually practice Islam".[16] According to a 2012 survey by Pew Research Center, 12% of Russian Muslims who were asked say that they attend Friday prayer once a week and 33% say they never visit their local mosque, and 89% expressed a belief in God and Muhammad.[21]

Sweden

Scholar Åke Sander claimed in 1992 that at most 40–50% of the people of Muslim background in Sweden "could reasonably be considered to be religious",[97] and in 2004, based on discussions and interviews with Muslim leaders, concerning second-generation Muslims born and raised in Sweden that "it does not seem that the percentage they consider to be religious Muslims in a more qualified sense exceeds fifteen percent, or perhaps even less".[98] Sander re-stated in 2004 that "we do not think it unreasonable to put the figure of religious Muslims in Sweden at the time of writing at close to 150,000".[99] According to Göran Larsson a "great majority of people with a Muslim cultural background are as secular or irreligious".[100]

Tunisia

A significant segment of Tunisians have been described as nominal or cultural Muslims.[101] Yet, there is no reliable data on the number of practicing Muslims.[102]

Turkey

See also: Secularism in Turkey

In a poll conducted by

Turkish Muslims said they were "extremely religious", 39% said they were "somewhat religious", and 32% said they were "not religious".[103]

Most ethnic Turkish people are either cultural or non-practicing Muslims,

secular.[17] Many of the Turkish people only attend mosques on special occasions (such as for weddings, funerals, and community gatherings), according to a 2012 survey by Pew Research Center, 19% of Turkish Muslims say that they attend Friday prayer once a week and 23% say they never visit their local mosque.[21] In general, "Turkish Islam" is considered to be "more moderate and pluralistic" than in other Middle Eastern-Islamic societies.[105]

school, and practise male circumcision.[106]

United States

According to the

American Muslims do not believe in God.[107] The frequency of receiving answers to prayers among Muslims was, 31% at least once a week and 12% once or twice a month.[108]

There are significant segment of Muslim immigrants in the United States who are cultural Muslims.[12] For instance, the overwhelming majority of Muslim Iranian Americans are so – called cultural or nominal Muslims, and the majority of them do not take fundamental Islamic rituals, such as daily prayers or fasting.[109] Many Turkish Americans are cultural Muslims.[110]

Criticism

According to Kia Abdullah, cultural Muslims are at the receiving end of criticism not only from conservative Muslims but also from some progressives, saying that cultural Muslim cherry-pick the best of both worlds without enough proactive contribution and commitment to liberalism.[111]

Notable people

  • Bella Hadid: She shared during an interview with Porter that she is "proud to be a Muslim",[112][113] but also stated that she lives a spiritual lifestyle, and although her family was not religious, she grew up learning about Judaism and is interested in Islam. "I'm very spiritual, and I find that I connect with every religion," she explained. "There's that my-way-is-the-right-way thing in human nature, but for me it's not about my god or your god. I kind of just call on whoever is willing to be there for me."[114]
  • Cenk Uygur: Although he is agnostic, he still identifies as a cultural Muslim.[115][116]
  • Dua Lipa: She was born in an Albanian Muslim household. She stated that she is a non-practicing Muslim, but has great respect for the faith.[117]
  • secularist.[118][119]
  • agnostic and a cultural Muslim.[120]
  • Marat Safin: While he does not really believe in a personal God,[121] he identifies as an "ethnic Muslim".
  • Mehmet Oz: He identifies as a "secular Muslim".[122]
  • Mohamed Hadid: He does not consider himself a devout Muslim.[123]
  • Mustafa Suleyman: co-founder of Google’s deepmind, now being a CEO of Microsoft AI talks about being a secular Muslim on Sam Harris' podcast[124]
  • Naseeruddin Shah: Said he and Javed Akhtar are non-practicing Muslims. [125]
  • Orhan Pamuk: He describes himself as a cultural Muslim who associates the historical and cultural identification with the religion, while not believing in a personal connection to God.[126]
  • Sajid Javid: While his family's heritage is Muslim, Javid himself is non-practicing,[127] but has remarked that he was 'the first Muslim Home Secretary to be invited (to the iftar)',[128] whereas his wife is a practicing Christian.[129]
  • Bharatiya (an Indian)".[130] He explained, "My father is Muslim and my mother is Hindu".[131]
  • Sohail Ahmed: He describes himself as a cultural Muslim.[132]
  • Fareed Zakaria: Zakaria is a self-described secular and non-practicing Muslim. He added: "My views on faith are complicated—somewhere between deism and agnosticism. I am completely secular in my outlook." His ex-wife is a Christian, and his three children have not been raised as Muslims.[133][134]
  • Hasan Piker: the nephew of Cenk Ughur Is a self-described, non-practicing Muslim. He has openly admitted to eating pork, drinking alcohol, and not observing religious practices, yet still identifies with Islam and calls himself a Muslim.[135]
  • Queenie (who left showbiz to focus seriously on her Islamic belief). She got engaged to a non-Muslim and fellow actor Aljur Abrenica for three years and has a son with him, yet still identifies with Islam and calls herself a Muslim, making it clear that she is staying with the religion. [136] [137]
  • Nuseir "Nas Daily" Yasin: stated that he is both an agnostic and non-religious Muslim.[138]
  • Shohreh Aghdashloo: despite being born a Muslim, she has stated that she has never practiced it.[139]
  • T-Pain: he was raised in a Muslim household, but he lacked interest in the religion. His wife is a Christian, but his three children follow both religions.[140]
  • Zinédine Zidane: he has described himself as a "non-practising Muslim".[69][141]
  • O'Shea "Ice Cube" Jackson: he converted to Islam in the early 1990s after being introduced to Nation of Islam though he denied membership to the group. Listening to his own conscience, he self-described as a "natural Muslim, 'cause it's just me and God. You know, going to the mosque, the ritual and the tradition, it's just not in me to do. So I don't do it."[142] He has also said that he thinks "religion is stupid" in part and explained, "I'm gonna live a long life, and I might change religions three or four times before I die. I'm on the Islam tip—but I'm on the Christian tip, too. I'm on the Buddhist tip as well. Everyone has something to offer to the world."[143]
  • The Atheist Muslim
    .

See also

Parallel concepts

Bibliography

  • Yilmaz, Selman. Cultural Muslims: Background Forces and Factors Influencing Everyday Religiosity of Muslim People. December 2014 DOI:10.7596/taksad.v3i3.360

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