George I of Greece
George I Γεώργιος Α΄ | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
King of the Hellenes | |||||
Reign | 30 March 1863 – 18 March 1913[a] | ||||
Enthronement | 6 June 1863 | ||||
Predecessor | Otto I | ||||
Successor | Constantine I | ||||
Prime Ministers | See list
| ||||
Born | Prince William of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg 24 December 1845 Copenhagen, Denmark | ||||
Died | 18 March 1913[a] Thessaloniki[b] | (aged 67)||||
Burial | Royal Cemetery, Tatoi Palace, Greece | ||||
Spouse | |||||
Issue | |||||
| |||||
Glücksburg | |||||
Father | Christian IX of Denmark | ||||
Mother | Louise of Hesse-Kassel | ||||
Signature |
George I (Greek: Γεώργιος Α΄, Geórgios I; 24 December 1845 – 18 March 1913) was King of Greece from 30 March 1863 until his assassination in 1913.
Originally a Danish prince, he was born in
George's reign of almost 50 years (the longest in
Family and early life
George was born on 24 December 1845 at his parents' residence the
Although he was of royal blood (his mother and father were both great-grandchildren of
George's mother tongue was Danish, with English as a second language. He was also taught French and German.[3] He embarked on a career in the Royal Danish Navy, and enrolled as a naval cadet along with his elder brother Frederick. While Frederick was described as "quiet and extremely well-behaved", George was "lively and full of pranks".[4]
King of the Hellenes
Following the
With Prince Alfred's exclusion, the search began for an alternative candidate. The French favored
His ceremonial enthronement in Copenhagen on 6 June was attended by a delegation of Greeks led by First Admiral and Prime Minister Konstantinos Kanaris. At the ceremony, it was announced that the British government would cede the Ionian Islands to Greece in honor of the new monarch.[14]
Early reign
The new 17-year-old king toured Saint Petersburg, London and Paris before departing for Greece from the French port of Toulon on 22 October aboard the Greek flagship Hellas. He arrived in Athens on 30 October [O.S. 18 October] 1863,[15] after docking at Piraeus the previous day.[16] He was determined not to make the mistakes of his predecessor, so he quickly learned Greek.[17] The new king was seen frequently and informally in the streets of Athens, where his predecessor had only appeared in pomp.[18] King George found the palace in a state of disarray, after the hasty departure of King Otto, and took to putting it right by mending and updating the 40-year-old building.[19] He also sought to ensure that he was not seen as too influenced by his Danish advisers, ultimately sending his uncle, Prince Julius, back to Denmark with the words, "I will not allow any interference with the conduct of my government".[20] Another adviser, Count Wilhelm Sponneck, became unpopular for advocating a policy of disarmament and tactlessly questioning the descent of modern Greeks from classical antecedents. Like Julius, he was dispatched back to Denmark.[21]
From May 1864, George undertook a tour of the
Politically, the new king took steps to conclude the protracted constitutional deliberations of the Assembly. On 19 October 1864, he sent the Assembly a demand, countersigned by Konstantinos Kanaris, explaining that he had accepted the crown on the understanding that a new constitution would be finalized, and that if it was not he would feel himself at "perfect liberty to adopt such measures as the disappointment of my hopes may suggest".[23] It was unclear from the wording whether he meant to return to Denmark or impose a constitution, but as either event was undesirable the Assembly soon came to an agreement.
On 28 November 1864, he took the oath to defend the new
Internationally, George maintained a strong relationship with his brother-in-law the Prince of Wales, who in 1901 became
Marriage and children
House of Glücksburg (Greek branch) |
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George I |
|
George first met
- Constantine (1868–1923), who married Princess Sophia of Prussia and had six children, including three subsequent kings of Greece: George II, Alexander, and Paul;
- Princess Marie Bonaparteand had two children;
- Alexandra (1870–1891), who married Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russiaand had two children;
- Nicholas (1872–1938), who married Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia and had three children;
- Maria (1876–1940), who married firstly Grand Duke George Mikhailovich of Russia, with whom she had two children, and secondly Admiral Perikles Ioannidis;
- Olga (1880), who died aged seven months;
- Andrew (1882–1944), who married Princess Alice of Battenberg and had five children, including Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.
- Nancy Stewart Worthington Leeds and secondly Princess Françoise of Orléans, with whom he had one child.
As a marriage gift, the Tsar gave George a group of islands in the
The King was related by marriage to the British, Russian and Prussian monarchs, maintaining a particularly strong attachment to the Prince and Princess of Wales, who visited Athens in 1869. Their visit occurred despite continued lawlessness which culminated in the kidnap of a party of British and Italian tourists, including
From 1864 to 1874, Greece had 21 governments, the longest of which lasted a year and a half.[41] In July 1874, Charilaos Trikoupis, a member of the Greek Parliament, wrote an anonymous article in the newspaper Kairoi blaming King George and his advisors for the continuing political crisis caused by the lack of stable governments. In the article, he accused the King of acting like an absolute monarch by imposing minority governments on the people. If the King insisted, he argued, that only a politician commanding a majority in the Vouli could be appointed prime minister, then politicians would be forced to work together more harmoniously to construct a coalition government. Such a plan, he wrote, would end the political instability and reduce the large number of smaller parties. Trikoupis admitted to writing the article after a man supposed by the authorities to be the author was arrested, whereupon he was taken into custody himself. After a public outcry, he was released and subsequently acquitted of the charge of "undermining the constitutional order". The following year, the King asked Trikoupis to form a government (without a majority) and then read a speech from the throne declaring that in future the leader of the majority party in parliament would be appointed prime minister.[42]
Territorial expansion
Throughout the 1870s, Greece kept pressure on the Ottoman Empire, seeking territorial expansion into Epirus and Thessaly. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 provided the first potential alliance for the Greek kingdom. George's sister Dagmar was the daughter-in-law of Alexander II of Russia, and she sought to have Greece join the war. The French and British refused to countenance such an act, and Greece remained neutral. At the Congress of Berlin convened in 1878 to determine peace terms for the Russo-Turkish War, Greece staked a claim to Crete, Epirus and Thessaly.[43]
The borders were still not finalized in June 1880 when a proposal very favorable to Greece that included Mount Olympus and Ioannina was offered by the British and French. When the Ottoman Turks strenuously objected, Prime Minister Trikoupis made the mistake of threatening a mobilization of the Hellenic Army. A coincident change of government in France, the resignation of Charles de Freycinet and his replacement with Jules Ferry, led to disputes among the Great Powers and, despite British support for a more pro-Greek settlement, the Turks subsequently granted Greece all of Thessaly but only the part of Epirus around Arta. When the government of Trikoupis fell, the new prime minister, Alexandros Koumoundouros, reluctantly accepted the new boundaries.[44]
While Trikoupis followed a policy of retrenchment within the established borders of the Greek state, having learned a valuable lesson about the vicissitudes of the Great Powers, his main opponents, the
Deligiannis mobilized the Hellenic Army, and the British Royal Navy blockaded Greece. The admiral in charge of the blockade was Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, who had been the first choice of the Greeks to be their king in 1863,[44] and the First Lord of the Admiralty at the time was Lord Ripon, whose brother-in-law had been murdered in Greece 16 years before.[45] This was not the last time that King George discovered that his family ties were not always to his advantage. Deligiannis was forced to demobilize and Trikoupis regained the premiership. Between 1882 and 1897, Trikoupis and Deligiannis alternated the premiership as their fortunes rose and fell.[46]
National progress
George's silver jubilee in 1888 was celebrated throughout the Hellenic world, and Athens was decorated with garlands for the anniversary of his accession on 30 October.[47] Visitors included the Crown Prince of Denmark, the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh, Grand Dukes Sergei and Paul of Russia, and Djevad Pasha from the Ottoman Empire, who presented the King with two Arabian horses as gifts.[48] Jubilee events in the week of 30 October included balls, galas, parades, a thanksgiving service at the Metropolitan Cathedral of Athens, and a lunch for 500 invited guests in a blue and white tent on the Acropolis.[49]
Greece in the last decades of the 19th century was increasingly prosperous and was developing a sense of its role on the European stage. In 1893, the
The popular desire to unite all Greeks within a single territory (
The Turks agreed, but Prime Minister Deligiannis refused and dispatched 1400 troops to Crete under the command of Colonel Timoleon Vassos. While the Great Powers announced a blockade, Greek troops crossed the Macedonian border and Abdul Hamid II declared war. The announcement that Greece was finally at war with the Turks was greeted by delirious displays of patriotism and spontaneous parades in honor of the King in Athens. Volunteers by the thousands streamed north to join the forces under the command of Crown Prince Constantine.[55]
The war went badly for the ill-prepared Greeks; the only saving grace was the swiftness with which the Hellenic Army was overrun. By the end of April 1897, the war was lost. The worst consequences of defeat for the Greeks were mitigated by the intervention of the King's relations in Britain and Russia; nevertheless, the Greeks were forced to give up Crete to international administration, and agree to minor territorial concessions in favor of the Turks and an indemnity of 4 million Turkish pounds.[56]
The jubilation with which Greeks had hailed their king at the beginning of the war was reversed in defeat. For a time, he considered abdication. It was not until the King faced down an assassination attempt on 27 February 1898 with great bravery that his subjects again held their monarch in high esteem.
Later that year, after continued unrest in Crete, which included the murder of the British vice-consul,[59] Prince George of Greece was made the Governor-General of Crete under the suzerainty of the Sultan, after the proposal was put forward by the Great Powers. Greece was effectively in day-to-day control of Crete for the first time in modern history.[51]
Later reign and assassination
The death of Britain's
As a response to the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, Venizelos's power base was further strengthened, and on 8 October 1908 the Cretan Assembly passed a resolution in favor of union despite both the reservations of the Athens government under Georgios Theotokis[62] and the objections of the Great Powers.[63] The muted reaction of the Athens Government to the news from Crete led to an unsettled state of affairs on the mainland.[64]
In August 1909, a group of army officers that had formed a military league,
Venizelos and the King were united in their belief that the nation required a strong army to repair the damage of the humiliating defeat of 1897. Crown Prince Constantine was reinstated as Inspector-General of the Army,[67] and later Commander-in-Chief. Under his and Venizelos's close supervision the military was retrained and equipped with French and British help, and new ships were ordered for the Hellenic Navy. Meanwhile, through diplomatic means, Venizelos had united the Christian countries of the Balkans in opposition to the ailing Ottoman Empire.[68]
When the Kingdom of Montenegro declared war on Turkey on 8 October 1912, it was joined quickly by Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece in what is known as the First Balkan War. George was on vacation in Denmark, so he immediately returned to Greece via Vienna, arriving in Athens to be met by a large and enthusiastic crowd on the evening of 9 October.[69] The results of this campaign differed radically from the Greek experience at the hands of the Turks in 1897.[70] The well-trained Greek forces, 200,000 strong, won victory after victory.[71] On 9 November 1912, Greek forces commanded by Crown Prince Constantine rode into Thessaloniki, just a few hours ahead of a Bulgarian division. Three days later King George rode in triumph through the streets of Thessaloniki, the second-largest Greek city, accompanied by the Crown Prince and Venizelos.[72][73] Less than two weeks before the King's death, Greek troops entered the chief Epirus town of Ioannina on 6 March 1913.[74]
As he approached the fiftieth anniversary of his accession, the King made plans to abdicate in favor of his son Constantine immediately after the celebration of his golden jubilee in October 1913.[75] Just as he did in Athens, George went about Thessaloniki without any meaningful protection force. While out on an afternoon walk near the White Tower on 18 March 1913, he was shot at close range in the back by Alexandros Schinas, who was "said to belong to a Socialist organization" and "declared when arrested that he had killed the King because he refused to give him money".[76] George died instantly, the bullet having penetrated his heart.[77] The Greek government denied any political motive for the assassination, saying that Schinas was an alcoholic vagrant.[78] Schinas was tortured in prison[79] and fell to his death from a police station window six weeks later.[80]
The King's body was taken to Athens on the Amphitrite, escorted by a flotilla of naval vessels.
Honours and arms
Honours
- Denmark:[84]
- Knight of the Elephant, 6 June 1863 – during his enthronement ceremony as King of the Hellenes[85]
- Cross of Honour of the Order of the Dannebrog, 9 September 1863
- Grand Commander of the Dannebrog, 30 June 1871
- Commemorative Medal for the Golden Wedding of King Christian IX and Queen Louise
- Russia: Knight of St. Andrew, September 1863[86]
- Prussia: Knight of the Black Eagle, 8 May 1867[87]
- Italy: Knight of the Annunciation, 15 October 1867[88]
- Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen, 1867[89]
- Sweden: Knight of the Seraphim, with Collar, 17 April 1868[90]
- Ernestine duchies: Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order, 1869[91]
- Spain:
- Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III, 12 May 1869[92]
- Knight of the Golden Fleece, 12 November 1871[93]
- Grand Cross of Naval Merit, with White Decoration, 27 January 1892[94]
- Anhalt: Grand Cross of the Order of Albert the Bear, 1870[95]
- Brunswick: Grand Cross of the Order of Henry the Lion, 1871[96]
- Mecklenburg: Grand Cross of the Wendish Crown, with Crown in Ore, 24 August 1871[97]
- Württemberg: Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown, 1871[98]
- Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach: Grand Cross of the White Falcon, 1873[99]
- Baden:
- Knight of the House Order of Fidelity, 1876[100]
- Grand Cross of the Zähringer Lion, 1876[101]
- United Kingdom:
- Stranger Knight Companion of the Garter, 12 July 1876[102]
- Honorary Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 8 March 1901[103]
- Recipient of the Royal Victorian Chain, 27 November 1905[104]
- Hesse and by Rhine: Grand Cross of the Ludwig Order, 18 September 1879[105]
- France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 1880[106]
- Knight of St. Hubert, 1892[107]
- Norway: Grand Cross of St. Olav, with Collar, 6 October 1906[108]
- Romania: Collar of the Order of Carol I, 1912[109]
- Saxony: Knight of the Rue Crown[110]
Military appointments
Arms
The distinctive Greek flag of blue and white cross was first hoisted during the Greek War of Independence in March 1822.[112] This was later modified so that the shade of blue matched that of the Bavarian coat of arms of the first King of Greece, Otto.[113] The shield is emblazoned with a smaller version of the royal arms of Denmark, including the three lions of the arms of Denmark proper, the two lions of Schleswig, the nettle leaf of Holstein, the horse head of Lauenburg, the two red bars of the House of Oldenburg and the cross of Delmenhorst. The supporters on either side both depicting Heracles are quite similar to the two wild men from the Danish royal arms. Beneath the shield is the motto in Greek, Ἰσχύς μου ἡ αγάπη τοῦ λαοῦ ("The people's love is my strength"). Beneath the motto dangles the Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer, Greece's premier decoration of honor.[114]
Ancestry
Ancestors of George I of Greece Frederick William, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg | | ||||||||||||||
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9. Countess Friederike von Schlieben | |||||||||||||||
2. Christian IX, King of Denmark | |||||||||||||||
10. Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel | |||||||||||||||
5. Princess Louise Caroline of Hesse-Kassel | |||||||||||||||
11. Princess Louise of Denmark | |||||||||||||||
1. George I, King of the Hellenes | |||||||||||||||
12. Prince Frederick of Hesse-Kassel | |||||||||||||||
6. Prince William of Hesse-Kassel | |||||||||||||||
13. Princess Caroline of Nassau-Usingen | |||||||||||||||
3. Princess Louise of Hesse-Kassel | |||||||||||||||
14. Frederick, Hereditary Prince of Denmark | |||||||||||||||
7. Princess Charlotte of Denmark | |||||||||||||||
15. Duchess Sophia Frederica of Mecklenburg-Schwerin | |||||||||||||||
Notes
- ^ a b Throughout George's lifetime, Greece used the Old Style Julian calendar. Unless otherwise indicated, all dates in this article are in the New Style Gregorian calendar.
- ^ At the time of the King's assassination, Thessaloniki was an occupied Ottoman territory. The city was recognized as part of the Kingdom of Greece by the Treaty of Bucharest five months later.
References
- ^ a b Van der Kiste, p. 6
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 6–8
- ^ Van der Kiste, p. 7; see also Christmas, pp. 22, 403
- ^ Christmas, p. 45
- ^ Lidderdale, H. A. (editor and translator) (1966). Makriyannis: The Memoirs of General Makriyannis 1797–1864. Oxford University Press. p. 212.
- ^ "History of the Constitution". Official web-site of the Hellenic Parliament. Archived from the original on 10 February 2007. Retrieved 12 February 2007.
- ^ Van der Kiste, p. 4
- ^ Clogg, p. 82
- ^ Forster, p. 17
- ^ Christmas, p. 37; Van der Kiste, p. 5
- ^ Christmas, pp. 39–41
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 6–11
- ^ Woodhouse, p. 170
- ^ The Times (London), 8 June 1863, p. 12, col. C
- ^ Forster, p. 18
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 14–15
- ^ Van der Kiste, p. 18
- ^ Van der Kiste, p. 16
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 16–17
- ^ The Times (London), 14 February 1865, p. 10, col. C
- ^ Christmas, pp. 73–74
- ^ Christmas, pp. 65–66
- ^ Royal Message to the National Assembly, 6 October 1864, quoted in The Times (London), 31 October 1864, p. 9, col. E
- ^ Campbell and Sherrard, p. 99
- ^ Woodhouse, p. 172
- ^ Woodhouse, p. 167
- ^ Van der Kiste, p. 23
- ^ Clogg, p. 87
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 10, 18
- ^ Van der Kiste, p. 24
- ^ Christmas, p. 83
- ^ Christmas, pp. 140–141
- ^ Christmas, p. 149
- ^ Van der Kiste, p. 37
- ^ Van der Kiste, p. 39
- ^ Forster, p. 74
- ^ Vickers, p. 309
- ^ Christmas, pp. 86–91
- ^ The King of the Hellenes to the Prince of Wales, April 1870. In: Letters of Queen Victoria 1870–1878 (1926) London: John Murray, vol. II, p. 16
- ^ Christmas, pp. 93–95
- ^ Ministry of Epameinondas Deligeorgis, 20 July 1872 – 21 February 1874
- ^ Clogg, p. 86
- ^ Clogg, p. 89
- ^ a b c Woodhouse, p. 181
- ^ Van der Kiste, p. 35
- ^ Clogg, pp. 90–92
- ^ Christmas, p. 119
- ^ Christmas, p. 120
- ^ Christmas, pp. 121–123
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 54–55
- ^ a b Woodhouse, p. 182
- ^ The Times (London), 12 February 1897, p. 9, col. E
- ^ Clogg, p. 93
- ^ The Times (London), 25 February 1897, p. 5, col. A
- ^ Mehmet Uğur Ekinci (2006). "The Origins of the 1897 Ottoman-Greek War: A Diplomatic History" (PDF). M.A. Thesis. Bilkent University, Ankara. Retrieved 12 February 2007.
- ^ Clogg, p. 94
- ^ The Times (London), 28 February 1898, p. 7, col. A
- ^ Christmas, pp. 269–270
- ^ Forster, p. 33
- ^ Van der Kiste, p. 63
- ^ Woodhouse, p. 186
- ^ Campbell and Sherrard, pp. 109–110
- ^ Forster, p. 44
- ^ Christmas, pp. 281–282
- ^ Van der Kiste, pp. 68–69
- ^ Clogg, pp. 97–99
- ^ Clogg, p. 100
- ^ Clogg, pp. 101–102
- ^ Christmas, pp. 348–349
- ^ Christmas, p. 328
- ^ Christmas, pp. 349–359
- ^ The Times (London), 26 November 1912, p. 11, col. C
- ^ Christmas, pp. 362–365
- ISBN 978-0-226-67374-5.
- ^ Christmas, p. 403
- ^ The Times (London), 19 March 1913, p. 6
- ^ Christmas, p. 408
- ^ The Times (London), 20 March 1913, p. 6
- ^ The New York Times, 20 March 1913, p. 3
- ^ The New York Times, 7 May 1913, p. 3
- ^ Christmas, p. 413
- ^ Van der Kiste, p. 77
- ^ "The Royal Order of King George I" (PDF). Official website of the Greek royal family. Retrieved 7 October 2012.
- ^ a b Bille-Hansen, A. C.; Holck, Harald, eds. (1912) [1st pub.:1801]. Statshaandbog for Kongeriget Danmark for Aaret 1912 [State Manual of the Kingdom of Denmark for the Year 1912] (PDF). Kongelig Dansk Hof- og Statskalender (in Danish). Copenhagen: J.H. Schultz A.-S. Universitetsbogtrykkeri. pp. 3, 6. Retrieved 16 September 2019 – via da:DIS Danmark.
- ^ Christmas, p. 54
- ^ Sergey Semenovich Levin (2003). "Lists of Knights and Ladies". Order of the Holy Apostle Andrew the First-called (1699–1917). Order of the Holy Great Martyr Catherine (1714–1917). Moscow.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ "Schwarzer Adler-orden", Königlich Preussische Ordensliste (in German), vol. 1, Berlin, 1886, p. 6
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Italia : Ministero dell'interno (1898). Calendario generale del Regno d'Italia. Unione tipografico-editrice. p. 53.
- ^ "A Szent István Rend tagjai" Archived 22 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Sveriges statskalender (in Swedish). 1905. p. 465. Retrieved 6 January 2018 – via runeberg.org.
- ^ Staatshandbücher für das Herzogtum Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha (1884), "Herzogliche Sachsen-Ernestinischer Hausorden" p. 31
- ^ "Real y distinguida orden de Carlos III", Guía Oficial de España (in Spanish), 1887, p. 155, retrieved 21 March 2019
- ^ "Caballeros de la insigne orden del toisón de oro", Guía Oficial de España (in Spanish), 1887, p. 146, retrieved 21 March 2019
- ^ Bollettino Ufficiale di Stato
- ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch für des Herzogtum Anhalt (1883), "Herzoglicher Haus-Orden Albrecht des Bären" p. 16
- ^ Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Herzogtums Braunschweig für das Jahr 1897, "Herzogliche Orden Heinrich des Löwen" p. 10
- ^ "Großherzogliche Orden und Ehrenzeichen". Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Großherzogtums Mecklenburg-Strelitz: 1878 (in German). Neustrelitz: Druck und Debit der Buchdruckerei von G. F. Spalding und Sohn. 1878. p. 11.
- ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Württemberg (1907), "Königliche Orden" p. 27
- ^ Staatshandbuch für das Großherzogtum Sachsen / Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach Archived 30 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine (1900), "Großherzogliche Hausorden" p. 15
- ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Baden (1880), "Großherzogliche Orden" p. 60
- ^ "Die vorstehend genannten Ritter des Hausordens der Treue sind zugleich Großkreuze des Ordens vom Zähringer Löwen, soweit sie nicht Ritter des Ordens Berthold I. von Zähringer sind." Hof- und Staats-Handbuch ... Baden (1880), "Großherzogliche Orden" p. 60
- ^ "No. 24346". The London Gazette. 18 July 1876. p. 4053.
- ^ "No. 27292". The London Gazette. 8 March 1901. p. 1647.
- ^ "No. 27859". The London Gazette. 1 December 1905. p. 8643.
- ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Grossherzogtums Hessen (1881), "Großherzogliche Orden und Ehrenzeichen", p. 14
- ISBN 978-2-35077-135-9.
- ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreichs Bayern (1906), "Königliche-Orden" p. 8
- ^ Norway (1908), "Den kongelige norske Sanct Olavs Orden", Norges Statskalender (in Norwegian), pp. 869–870, retrieved 17 September 2021
- ^ "Ordinul Carol I" [Order of Carol I]. Familia Regală a României (in Romanian). Bucharest. Retrieved 17 October 2019.
- ^ Justus Perthes, Almanach de Gotha (1913) p. 40
- ^ "No. 27611". The London Gazette. 3 November 1903. p. 6696.
- ^ Smith, Whitney (1980). Flags and Arms Across the World. London: Cassell. p. 99.
- ISBN 1-85605-469-1.
- ^ Maclagan and Louda, p. 285
- ^ Maclagan and Louda, pp. 51, 53
Sources
- Campbell, John; Sherrard, Philip (1968). Modern Greece. London: Ernest Benn.
- Christmas, Walter (1914). King George of Greece. Translated by A. G. Chater. New York: McBride, Nast & Company.
- Clogg, Richard (1979). A Short History of Modern Greece. Cambridge University Press.
- Forster, Edward S. (1958). A Short History of Modern Greece 1821–1956 3rd edition. London: Methuen and Co.
- ISBN 0-7509-0525-5.
- Woodhouse, C. M. (1968). The Story of Modern Greece. London: Faber and Faber.
External links
- Vilhelm (Georg I) at the website of the Amalienborg Palace