Second Hellenic Republic
Hellenic Republic Ἑλληνικὴ Δημοκρατία | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1924–1935 | |||||||||
Anthem: « Theodoros Pangalos | |||||||||
• 1926–1929 | Pavlos Kountouriotis | ||||||||
• 1929–1935 | Alexandros Zaimis | ||||||||
Prime Minister | |||||||||
• 1924 (first) | Alexandros Papanastasiou | ||||||||
• 1933–1935 (last) | Panagis Tsaldaris | ||||||||
Legislature | Parliament | ||||||||
• Upper house | Senate | ||||||||
• Lower house | Chamber of Deputies | ||||||||
Historical era | Interwar period | ||||||||
• Established | 25 March 1924 | ||||||||
• Abolished | 3 November 1935 | ||||||||
Area | |||||||||
[1] | 130,199 km2 (50,270 sq mi) | ||||||||
Population | |||||||||
• 1924[2] | 5,924,000 | ||||||||
• 1928 (census)[2] | 6,204,684 | ||||||||
• 1935[2] | 6,839,000 | ||||||||
Currency | Greek drachma | ||||||||
| |||||||||
Today part of | Greece |
The Second Hellenic Republic is a modern
The fall of
The Second Hellenic Republic was abolished on 10 October 1935,
History of Greece |
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Greece portal |
Name
When the Republic was proclaimed on 25 March 1924, the official name adopted for the country was Hellenic State (Greek: Ἑλληνικὴ Πολιτεία).[3] However, the name was changed to Hellenic Republic (Greek: Ἑλληνικὴ Δημοκρατία) on 24 May 1924 by vote of the Parliament.[5] Accordingly, the title of the country's head of state was changed from Governor (Greek: Κυβερνήτης) to President of the Republic (Greek: Πρόεδρος της Δημοκρατίας).[5] This was done to avoid any confusion as to the meaning of the terms.[5] The word Δημοκρατία (dimokratía), used in the official name to mean Republic, translates as "democracy" as well.[6]
In everyday speech the country was simply known as Greece. In the official variant of Greek that was the language of state, known as Katharevousa, this was Ἑλλάς (Ellás). In Demotic, or 'popular Greek', it was Ἑλλάδα (Elláda). Sometimes, the name Hellas was used in English as well.
History
National Schism and the republican question
The collapse of the
After the defeat of Greece by the
However, and despite the plebiscite, in the closing chapter of his History of the Greek Nation from Antiquity until 1930, Pavlos Karolidis notes that although the question of the form of government had been settled formally, it remained unresolved in the national consciousness.[11] He goes on to add that "the regime change was carried out by men who imposed their preferred form of government posthaste as representatives of the sovereign people so as to educate them, but this is considered by many not to be a true expression of the national conscience and will".[11]
First years
The Republic was proclaimed on 25 March 1924 by the Parliament;
The results of the referendum were a clear victory for the Republican campaign: 69.9% in favour of a republic and 30.1% in favour of the monarchy;
The fragile nature of the young Greek republic became evident from the first year of its existence. While the Parliament was still debating the new constitution (
Following his coup, Pangalos was sworn in as Prime Minister by the acting Governor of Greece (Pavlos Kountouriotis) and demanded that the Parliament give him a vote of confidence. Surprisingly, he received the vote of confidence with 185 of the 208 Members of Parliament present voting in favour, including Alexandros Papanastasiou (the Prime Minister before Pangalos' coup) and Georgios Kondylis.[17]
Meanwhile, relations between
Later years and collapse
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Kountouriotis was reinstated and reelected to the office in 1929, but was forced to resign for health reasons later that year. He was succeeded by Alexandros Zaimis, who served until the restoration of the monarchy in 1935.
Despite a period of stability and sense of well-being under the government of
Politics
Law and order
The Constitution of 1927 is considered a progressive one for its time. Written to replace the Constitution of 1926, which was never implemented, it was passed in the parliament on 3 June 1927. The most profound change brought upon the country by the passing of the new constitution was the overthrow of the monarchy on a de jure level (the monarchy had been de facto abolished in the referendum of 1924). Article 2 established a republic (the word used in the constitution is "Δημοκρατία", which can mean both democracy and republic).[22]
Parliament and franchise
The constitution of 1927 established a
Between 1924 and 1935, a total of six elections took place. The politics of the Second Republic were dominated by the republican Liberal Party, under the leadership of Eleftherios Venizelos, and the moderately conservative-monarchist People's Party under Panagis Tsaldaris. These parties were the primary means by which Greeks participated in the political life and they were not parties built on principles or class consciousness, but rather "parties of personalities" relying on charismatic leaders around which the base coalesced.[26] The traditional Greek café was the battleground for everyday political discussions, and the high degree of personal involvement in political discussions set Greece apart from other constitutional countries.[26] This created both positive and negative side effects; on the one hand the population was politically involved on a personal level, and therefore incentivised, but on the other this political involvement made the country highly critical.[26]
In 1930, after five years of deliberation, suffrage was partially extended to women, who were now allowed the right to vote, but not stand for election, in local elections.[27] The first opportunity to do so was given to them in the same year in Thessaloniki, where 240 women exercised their right.[27] Nationwide the turnout of women remained low, with only approximately 15,000 participating in the local elections of 1934.[27] The inclusion of women as candidates for election in numerous electoral lists was struck down by the courts with the argument that the law had only given women "a limited franchise".[27] The table below illustrates the performance of the two major political parties in the parliamentary and senate elections that took place under the Second Republic.
Election | Lower house (Chamber) | Upper house (Senate) | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Liberal Party | People's Party | Others | Liberal Party | People's Party | Others | ||||||||
% | Seats | % | Seats | % | Seats | % | Seats | % | Seats | % | Seats | ||
1926[28] |
31.6% | 102 | 20.3% | 60 | 48.1% | 117 | NA | ||||||
1928[28] |
46.9% | 178 | 23.9% | 19 | 29.2% | 53 | NA | ||||||
1929[25] |
NA | 54.6% | 64 | 19.1% | 10 | 26.3% | 21 | ||||||
1932[28] |
33.4% | 98 | 33.8% | 95 | 32.8% | 57 | 39.5% | 16 | 32.5% | 13 | 28.0% | 1 | |
1933[28] |
33.3% | 80 | 38.1% | 118 | 28.6% | 50 | NA | ||||||
1935[25] |
boycott | 65.0% | 254 | 35.0% | 46 | NA |
Foreign relations
The Republic's foreign policy was largely shaped by the Premiership of
In 1934, the government of
Apart from an interest in regional stability and friendship, the Second Republic, through Venizelos, supported
Throughout the Second Republic, Greece was a committed member of the League of Nations, Eleftherios Venizelos having played an important role in its creation in 1919.[32] The country contributed over 1.5 million gold francs to the League's budget between 1927 and 1934, an average of 0.6% of each year's budget, and a number of Greeks were employed in various positions within the League through its history.[32]
Regions
The Second Hellenic Republic was subdivided into 10 regions, which we would today call the traditional geographic regions of Greece. These varied widely in size and population. The most populous was Central Greece and Euboea, with 1.6 million people, followed closely by Macedonia (1.4 million), while the smallest were the Cyclades with 129,702 people. The largest in total area was Macedonia at 34,892.8 km2 (13,472.2 sq mi), while the smallest were the Ionian Islands, at 1,921.5 km2 (741.9 sq mi). The Ionian Islands were also Greece's most densely populated region, with a population density of 110.93/km2 (287.3/sq mi).
Region | Capital | Population | Area | Density | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
in km2 | in sq mi | per km2 | per sq mi | ||||
1 | Central Greece and Euboea | Athens | 1,592,842 | 24,995.8 | 9,650.9 | 63.72 | 165.0 |
2 | Macedonia | Thessaloniki | 1,412,477 | 34,892.8 | 13,472.2 | 40.48 | 104.8 |
3 | Peloponnese | Tripolis | 1,053,327 | 22,282.8 | 8,603.4 | 47.27 | 122.4 |
4 | Thessaly | Larissa | 493,213 | 13,334.4 | 5,148.4 | 36.99 | 95.8 |
5 | Crete | Chania | 386,427 | 8,286.7 | 3,199.5 | 46.63 | 120.8 |
6 | Epirus | Ioannina | 312,634 | 9,351.0 | 3,610.4 | 33.43 | 86.6 |
7 | Aegean Islands | Mytilene | 307,734 | 3,847.9 | 1,485.7 | 79.97 | 207.1 |
8 | Western Thrace | Komotini | 303,171 | 8,706.3 | 3,361.5 | 47.66 | 123.4 |
9 | Ionian Islands | Corfu | 213,157 | 1,921.5 | 741.9 | 110.93 | 287.3 |
10 | Cyclades | Ermoupolis |
129,702 | 2,580.2 | 996.2 | 50.27 | 130.2 |
- | Greece | Athens | 6,204,684 | 130,199.4 | 50,270.3 | 47.66 | 123.4 |
Flags and symbols
For most of its history, Greece had two distinct national flags which co-existed: a simple blue field with a white cross for use as a national flag on land, and a more complex design featuring nine blue and white stripes with a white cross on a blue field in the
During the short-lived dictatorship of
Military and police
The peacetime organisation of the
Law enforcement was handled by a series of different bodies, including the Hellenic Gendarmerie (Χωροφυλακή), the Cities Police (Ἀστυνομία Πόλεων), the Countryside Police (Ἀγροφυλακή), and the Forests Police (Δασοφυλακή).
Economy
According to the
The labour force in the Census of 1928 is shown as overwhelmingly agricultural and male-dominated.[40] Unemployment among men stood at 16.8% according to the census of 1928 while 68% of women stated they did not work.[40] Trade unionism, though legal, was actively discouraged by the government and some 3,000 labour activists were sent to internal exile in the period 1929–1936.[21]
Public finances
The complexity of the tax code of the era made it difficult to determine the average tax rate imposed on income, however the
1923 | 1924 | 1925 | 1926 | 1927 | 1928 | 1929 | 1930b | 1931b | 1932 | 1933 | 1934 | 1935 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Revenue (in ₯ millions) | 3,984 | 5,723 | 7,922 | 9,508 | 8,996 | 10,551 | 18,729 | 11,394 | 11,076 | 9,144 | 8,468 | 9,237 | 10,647 |
Expenses (in ₯ millions) | 5,000 | 5,498 | 6,841 | 8,687 | 7,770 | 9,446 | 18,355 | 11,176 | 11,099 | 9,117 | 7,706 | 8,746 | 10,049 |
Surplus or deficit (in ₯ millions)a | -1,016 | +225 | +1,081 | +821 | +1,226 | +1,105 | +374 | +217 | -22 | +27 | +762 | +491 | +597 |
Public debt (in ₯ millions)[46][47][48][40][45] | 35,762 | 38,169 | 38,559 | 41,279 | 42,967 | 43,143 | 42,965 | 44,985 | |||||
a Before debt repayments are factored in b The Great Depression |
Trade and commerce
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org. |
The agricultural nature of Greece's economy was reflected in its exports. In 1933 over 85% of Greece's exports in terms of value were agricultural, with the largest share of exports being raw tobacco (₯738 million).[50] The Great Depression had a big impact on the prices of luxury products such as tobacco and raisins, which were the bulk of Greece's agricultural exports, and the collapse of prices hit exports such as tobacco hard. While in 1933 the country exported 34,743 tons of tobacco worth ₯738 million (₯20,000 per ton), it exported 50,055 tons worth ₯3.95 billion (₯80,000 per ton) before the crisis.[50]
Governments during the Second Republic enacted numerous protectionist policies aimed at reducing Greece's negative balance of trade by £7 million (£471 million in today's value), something which was ultimately achieved and greatly benefited the domestic industrial economy.[50] When the Republic was established, more than two thirds of the country's wheat requirement had to be imported from abroad; by the fall of the Republic this had reverted and Greece was practically self-sustaining in terms of wheat thanks to tariffs established by the government and incentives given for the cultivation of wheat.[51] Ultimately however falling prices during the Great Depression had a bigger impact in improving the trading position of the country than protectionist policies did.[50]
There were three free economic zones in the country, the Port of Thessaloniki (established 1914), the Port of Piraeus (established 1930), and the Serbian free port contained within the Port of Thessaloniki (imposed on Greece by the Treaty of Bucharest in 1913).[52] Trends at the Port of Thessaloniki show a big decline in imports between 1926 and 1933, from 69,013 m3 (2,437,200 cu ft) to 14,223 m3 (502,300 cu ft), and a large increase in exports during the same period, from 178 m3 (6,300 cu ft) to 41,322 m3 (1,459,300 cu ft), peaking at 70,605 m3 (2,493,400 cu ft) in 1927.[52] The annual Thessaloniki International Fair was also inaugurated in 1927, with over 1,600 participating companies from numerous countries in 1933, and great economic benefit to Northern Greece.[53]
By import value (in thousands) | Balance (₯) | By export value (in thousands) | Balance (₯) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country | Imports (₯) | Exports (₯) | Country | Exports (₯) | Imports (₯) | |||||
1 | Germany | 1,996,627 | 2,109,368 | +112,741 | 1 | Germany | 2,109,368 | 1,996,627 | +112,741 | |
– | UK, Canada, and India | 1,957,369 | 901,906 | -1,055,463 | 2 | United States | 1,202,475 | 667,332 | +535,143 | |
2 | United Kingdom | 1,657,897 | 897,999 | -759,898 | – | UK, Canada, and India | 901,906 | 1,957,369 | -1,055,463 | |
3 | Argentina | 1,056,371 | 60,107 | -996,264 | 3 | United Kingdom | 897,999 | 1,657,897 | -759,898 | |
4 | Romania | 795,903 | 230,764 | -565,139 | 4 | Italy | 422,555 | 393,981 | +28,574 | |
5 | United States | 667,332 | 1,202,475 | +535,143 | 5 | Sweden | 292,518 | 312,897 | -20,379 | |
6 | Soviet Union | 486,921 | 70,952 | -415,971 | 6 | Netherlands | 275,330 | 268,208 | +7,122 | |
7 | Czechoslovakia | 413,087 | 188,046 | -225,041 | 7 | Romania | 230,764 | 795,903 | -565,139 | |
8 | Yugoslavia | 409,013 | 153,733 | -255,280 | 8 | Egypt | 213,560 | 217,209 | -3,649 | |
9 | Italy | 393,981 | 422,555 | +28,574 | 9 | France | 194,984 | 184,151 | +10,833 | |
10 | Sweden | 312,897 | 292,518 | -20,379 | 10 | Czechoslovakia | 188,046 | 413,087 | -225,041 | |
– | Other nations | 533,990 | 570,886 | -36,876 | – | Other nations | 1,073,690 | 3,774,096 | -2,700,406 | |
Total trade | 10,681,388 | 7,101,289 | -3,580,099 | Total trade | 7,101,289 | 10,681,388 | -3,580,099 |
Bank reforms and industrialisation
In the early years of the Republic, the government of Alexandros Zaimis took a loan from British banks that totalled £9 million (£572 million in today's value) intended for land reclamation and improvement (primarily in the northern regions).[51] The conditions for this loan, however, stipulated that Greece had to stabilise its currency (the Greek drachma) by adopting the gold standard and by establishing a central bank to oversee economic policy.[51] A further loan for £4 million (£256 million in today's value) in order to carry out public works was taken in 1928.[55] In May 1928 the Bank of Greece was established, revoking the National Bank of Greece's rights to print currency much to the dissatisfaction of the NBG.[51] A similar dispute erupted again in 1929, when the Greek government decided to establish the Agricultural Bank of Greece and revoke the NBG's rights to give out agricultural loans.[51]
The reforms brought about by the government changed the face of the Greek banking sector, and although the Agricultural Bank sustained the Greek rural economy through two years of hardship between 1931 and 1932 by issuing loans totalling ₯1.3 billion, the National Bank of Greece dominated the industrial and manufacturing sectors.[51]
One of the main electoral promises made by Venizelos during his campaign for the Premiership in 1928 was to change the face of Greece in four years by funding large-scale infrastructure projects aimed at increasing production.[51] This was largely achieved by his government, and between 1929 and 1938 Greece had industrial growth rates that averaged between 5.11% and 5.73%, ranking the country third in the world behind Japan and the Soviet Union.[51] By 1926, Greece's light industry supplied 76.4% of the country's demand, while heavy industry was almost non-existent.[56] Between 1923 and 1932 the Greek government borrowed ₯950 million which was channelled to infrastructure projects, while another ₯600 million was lent to private enterprises.[51] Overall successive governments under the Second Republic borrowed over ₯6.6 billion from within the country in the period 1924–1929, either through loans with Greek banks or through the forced exchange of banknotes for interest-gaining floating rate notes.[55]
As of 1933 there were 30 banks in the country, 5 of which were foreign banks.[57] The total capitalisation of the banking sector stood at ₯3.49 billion in the same year; the same banks held ₯18.84 billion in deposits.[57]
1924 | 1925 | 1926 | 1927 | 1928 | 1929 | 1930† | 1931† | 1932 | 1933 | 1934 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Patents | 248 | 299 | 301 | 391 | 383 | 502 | 574 | 513 | 510 | 506 | 565 |
Trademark registrations | 809 | 655 | 602 | 686 | 1,050 | 1,060 | 1,191 | 960 | 1,018 | 2,326 | 1,565 |
New factories opened | 107 | 132 | 124 | 214 | 192 | 63 | 45 | 93 | 50 | 37 | 67 |
Electricity production ( kW h ) |
40,000 | 40,000 | 50,000 | 60,000 | 70,000 | 100,000 | 115,000 | 120,000 | 125,000 | 140,000 | |
Total industrial production (in ₯ millions) | 3,883 | 4,978 | 5,473 | 6,655 | 7,115 | 7,158 | 6,631 | 6,052 | 6,749 | 8,548 | 9,913 |
Yearly industrial growth | +21.7% | +28.2% | +9.9% | +21.6% | +6.9% | +0.6% | -7.4% | -8.7% | +11.5% | +26.7% | +16.0% |
† The Great Depression |
Greece during the Great Depression
Gentlemen deputies, since the month of October of the year 1929 [...] the whole world has been beset by an economic crisis, the extent and intensity of which has perhaps never been seen before. Until the month of September 1931, Greece, without anyone of course being able to claim that she did not feel the repercussion of this crisis at all, was going ahead with the task of its economic reconstruction with a firm step [...]
Eleftherios Venizelos in the Hellenic Parliament, March 1932[59]
In 1928 the Venizelos government had a number of economic concerns to worry about, however the government budget and general economic situation gave some hope. Between 1928 and 1931 three consecutive budgets had shown a surplus, unemployment was kept at a safe level and the national debt was reduced by 11%.[51] On 21 September 1931 however the United Kingdom abandoned the gold standard and the crisis hit Greece. By 27 September 1931 the run on the banks had caused the Bank of Greece to lose $3.6 million of its foreign reserves ($72 million in today's value).[51]
The following couple of years were grim for the Greek economy as it entered recession along with the rest of the global economy. In early 1932 Venizelos asked the
Currency and circulation
Under the Second Republic, the
When Britain abandoned the Gold Standard on 21 September 1931, Greece did not follow suit. Instead, the Drachma remained in the Gold Standard but switched
1924 | 1925 | 1926 | 1927 | 1928 | 1929 | 1930 | 1931 | 1932 | 1933 | 1934 | 1935 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Carats of gold per ₯1 |
1.79 | 1.56 | 1.26 | 1.31 | 1.30 | 1.30 | 1.30 | 1.30 | 0.83 | 0.56 | 0.56 | 0.56 |
Change in value | — | 12.9% | 19.2% | 3.8% | 0.7% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 36.2% | 32.5% | 0.0% | 0.0% |
Tourism
The systematic development of the Greek tourism industry began under the Second Republic, with the establishment of the Greek National Tourism Organization (EOT) and the Tourist Police in 1929.[66] The creation of a national statistics agency also aided in the organised collection of reliable tourist information, while efforts by the government to regulate the quality of hotels saw an increase in accommodation standards.[67] The EOT also created the notion of the Greek 'summer season' by offering discounts and allowances to boat, train, and air tickets.[67] A hospitality school was founded, with staff educated in Switzerland, as well as a school for interpreters and tour guides.[67]
Data from the year 1932 indicates that 72,102 tourists visited the country, of which approximately 18,000 were Greek nationals, who were living permanently in another country.[68] The number continued to rise, and in 1935, the last year of the republic, tourist arrivals stood at 126,218.[65] Data from the same year indicated that, on average, foreign nationals stayed in Greece for 18 days, compared with 101 days for Greek nationals living permanently abroad, for a total average of 31 days stay.[69] Greeks went abroad as tourists at a much lesser frequency, with 15,562 Greeks exiting the country for tourism elsewhere, of which only a third were going abroad primarily for leisure.[69] This was due to the devaluation of the Drachma in 1932.[68]
The Statistical Yearbook of 1936 also gives information as to the type of tourism that the Second Republic was experiencing. Of all tourist arrivals in 1935, 61,855 (49%) were there mainly for leisure, 31,690 (25%) were tourists visiting Greek ports, 16,481 (13%) were tourists in transit, 7,124 (6%) were business tourists, 4,591 (4%) were visiting for family reasons, 1,180 (1%) were visiting students, and 887 (0.7%) for other purposes.[69]
Society
Demographics
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1924 | 5,923,000 | — |
1925 | 5,992,000 | +1.2% |
1926 | 6,091,000 | +1.7% |
1927 | 6,163,000 | +1.2% |
1928 | 6,204,684 | +0.7% |
1929 | 6,303,000 | +1.6% |
1930 | 6,398,000 | +1.5% |
1931 | 6,483,000 | +1.3% |
1932 | 6,548,000 | +1.0% |
1933 | 6,630,000 | +1.3% |
1934 | 6,746,000 | +1.7% |
1935 | 6,839,000 | +1.4% |
Source: Statistical Yearbook 1936[2] |
The total number of people in Greece numbered 6,204,684 people according to the census of 1928.[70] This was an increase from the census of 1920 (5,536,000 people) despite the fact that Greece lost territories with an area of approximately 20,000 square kilometres (7,700 sq mi) with a population of over half a million people in the Treaty of Lausanne.[70] Additionally, the census of the same year indicates that 1.2 million people (19% of the population of the country) registered as refugees.[70] The census revealed that there were 3.13 million women and 3.08 million men in the country.[70]
Urban life increased following the exchange of populations. In 1920 26% of people lived in urban centers and 74% in rural areas.
Rank | Name
|
Geographic region | Pop. | Rank | Name
|
Geographic region | Pop. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Athens |
1 | Athens | Central Greece and Euboea | 459,211 | 11 | Drama | Macedonia | 32,186 | Thessaloniki Patras |
2 | Piraeus | Central Greece and Euboea | 251,659 | 12 | Mytilene | Aegean Islands | 31,661 | ||
3 | Thessaloniki | Macedonia | 214,680 | 13 | Komotini | Western Thrace | 31,551 | ||
4 | Patras | Peloponnese | 64,636 | 14 | Serres | Macedonia | 29,640 | ||
5 | Kavala | Macedonia | 50,852 | 15 | Kalamata | Peloponnese | 28,961 | ||
6 | Volos | Thessaly | 47,892 | 16 | Chios | Aegean Islands | 26,167 | ||
7 | Heraclion |
Crete | 39,231 | 17 | Larissa | Thessaly | 25,861 | ||
8 | Xanthi | Macedonia | 35,912 | 18 | Trikala | Thessaly | 22,117 | ||
9 | Corfu | Ionian Islands | 34,193 | 19 | Ioannina | Epirus | 21,503 | ||
10 | Chania | Crete | 32,239 | 20 | Ermoupolis |
Cyclades | 21,416 |
Health and welfare
A major step in the creation of a welfare state in Greece was done under the Liberal government of Eleftherios Venizelos which passed Law 5733 on 11 October 1932, creating the Social Insurance Institute (Ἵδρυμα τῶν Κοινωνικῶν Ἀσφαλίσεων, IKA).[72] This unified the 50 or so social insurance programmes which were active in Greece at the time, some of which dated back to the 1830s, into a single state-operated system of universal social insurance comparable to those of industrialised nations.[73] It was heavily based on the social security system of Czechoslovakia, and the International Labour Organisation was instrumental in shaping it.[74] It would provide sick pay and workers' compensation to all those insured, but not unemployment benefits due to the complexity of unemployment welfare.[73] Its aim was to prevent a deterioration of working conditions in a climate of increased labour unionism as well as the general improvement of working conditions at a time when the state of the labouring class was characterised by the government as "appalling".[75] Additionally, labour legislation was considered to be an important preventive measure against the rise of communism.[75]
The IKA would cover all those employed in Greece (regardless of citizenship) in either the public or private sector, those employed on ships under the Greek flag, Greek citizens working abroad on behalf of companies based in Greece, those involved in the administration of labour unions, and all students.[72] Benefits would be calculated based on the insured worker's daily salary over a period of four weeks prior to the benefits being applied, from a 9-tier scale ranging from ₯0.05 to ₯200 per day.[72] Additionally, it had the power to invest its reserves in government securities or securities guaranteed by the state, profit-yielding real estate, or for loans intended for public works.[74]
Despite Law 5733 being passed, the IKA was never implemented due to objections from the various insurance programmes it would have replaced. The government of Eleftherios Venizelos fell in 1934, and the government that succeeded him failed to implement the creation of the IKA as well. The
Ethnic groups and migration
Like present-day Greece, the second Republic was a relatively homogenous country, with almost 94% of the population being
During the years of the Republic, no significant minorities existed in the country. The largest, the Turks of Western Thrace, was the only officially recognised minority in the country and numbered approximately 103,000 people or 1.66% of the population of the country.[70] Other ethnic groups with over 1.00% of the population were the Bulgars (1.33%) and the Jews of Salonica (1.13%).[70] Foreign citizens accounted for an additional 1.18% of the population, while Armenians and Albanians for 0.56% and 0.40% respectively.[70]
Migration was a big issue in Greece in the late 19th and early 20th century, with 485,936 people leaving the country for the New World between 1821 and 1932.[68] During the Second Republic yearly transatlantic migration numbers dropped considerably, from 8,152 in 1924 to 2,821 in 1932.[68] Overall migration figures for 1931 show net migration to the country, with 17,384 people relocating to Greece and 15,060 migrating abroad; in 1932 there net migration from the country, with 17,245 arrivals and 19,712 departures.[68] Migration figures from that year show that the lion's share of migrants departed for the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (5,407), followed by Egypt (2,825), Romania (2,352), and the United States (2,281).[68]
Languages
The homogeneity of the Second Republic in terms of ethnic composition was also reflected in its languages. In the 1928 Census, 92.8% of the population listed Greek as their primary language, followed by Turkish (3.1%), and Macedonian (1.3%, listed in the Census as Macedonoslavic).[80] The degree to which the Census of 1928 reflected the actual linguistic situation in Greece is debated, as internal government documents from 1932 put the number of Slavic speakers in the Florina prefecture alone at 80,000 (61%), as opposed to 81,984 for the entire country in the Census.[81][80]
Additionally, there were two official varieties of the Greek language vying for supremacy in the
Beginning in 1925 the government introduced an
Education
Literacy of persons aged 8+ in Greece stood at 59% in 1928, with a sharp contrast between men (77%) and women (42%).[83] Literacy rates also varied widely between regions, ranging from 66% for Central Greece & Euboea and 63% for the Aegean islands, to 50% for Epirus and 39% for Thrace.[83]
To remedy this, the government of Eleftherios Venizelos began an ambitious school-building program spanning 1928 to 1932. Twice as many schools were built in four years than had been built between 1828 and 1928; 3,167 schools with 8,200 classrooms were constructed at a cost of ₯1.5 billion.[84] The investment was financed in part by a £1 million loan from a Swedish bank (£64 million in today's value), and through the country's budget surplus.[84] A welcome side effect of the building program were the more hygienic conditions in schools, which contributed to the decline of ill students as a percentage of the total student population from 24.5% in 1926–1927 to 18.2% in 1931–1932.[84] The number of students in public primary education, meanwhile, grew from 655,839 in 1928 to 864,401 in 1934.[85]
By the end of the Republic, Greece's public educational infrastructure included 545 nurseries, 7,764 primary schools, 399 secondary schools, and 7 institutions of higher education (including 3 universities: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, and the National Technical University of Athens).[86]
See also
- History of the Hellenic Republic
- Leonardopoulos–Gargalidis coup d'état attempt
References
- ^ a b Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1931, p. 23–24.
- ^ a b c d Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1936, p. 416.
- ^ a b c "Newspaper of the Government - Issue 64". Government Newspaper of the Hellenic State. 25 March 1924. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
- ^ "Newspaper of the Government - Issue 456". Government Newspaper of the Kingdom of Greece. 10 October 1935. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
- ^ a b c "Newspaper of the Government - Issue 120". Government Newspaper of the Hellenic Republic. 28 May 1924. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
- ^ "Δημοκρατία". Word Reference. Retrieved 2019-10-19.
- ^ Karolidis, Pavlos (1930). Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους [History of the Greek Nation]. Vol. 20 (1993 ed.). Cactus Publishing Enterprises. p. 276.
- ^ Karolidis, Pavlos (1930). Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους [History of the Greek Nation]. Vol. 20 (1993 ed.). Cactus Publishing Enterprises. p. 289.
- ^ a b c 100+1 Χρόνια Ελλάδα [100+1 Years of Greece]. Vol. A. I Maniateas Publishing Enterprises. 1999. pp. 182–183.
- ^ a b c d "Newspaper of the Government - Issue 70". Government Newspaper of the Hellenic State. 29 March 1924. Retrieved 2 March 2014.
- ^ a b Karolidis, Pavlos (1930). Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους [History of the Greek Nation]. Vol. 20 (1993 ed.). Cactus Publishing Enterprises. pp. 401–402.
- ^ "Empros". National Library of Greece. 14 April 1924. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
- ^ a b "Skrip". National Library of Greece. 14 April 1924. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
- ^ "Rizospastis". National Library of Greece. 14 April 1924. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
- ^ "Makedonia". National Library of Greece. 14 April 1924. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
- ^ "Newspaper of the Government - Issue 93". Government Newspaper of the Kingdom of Greece. 23 April 1924. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
- ^ a b c d e 100+1 Χρόνια Ελλάδα [100+1 Years of Greece]. Vol. A. I Maniateas Publishing Enterprises. 1999. p. 189.
- ^ "Inflation calculator". Bank of England.
- ^ United Nations for the Classroom. p. 15.
- ISBN 978-1107613911.
- ^ S2CID 154297339.
- ^ Constitution of the Hellenic Republic, Chapter One: Form and Basis of the Government.
- ^ a b c d e Constitution of the Hellenic Republic, Chapter Four: Legislative Power.
- ^ Constitution of the Hellenic Republic, English translation as provided in Civil Affairs Handbook: Greece: Government and administration.
- ^ a b c d "Register of Senators and Deputies" (PDF). National Printing House, Hellenic Parliament. 1977. Retrieved 28 February 2013.
- ^ a b c Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 861.
- ^ a b c d Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 871.
- ^ a b c d "Register of Senators and Deputies" (PDF). National Printing House, Hellenic Parliament. 1977. Retrieved 28 February 2013.
- ^ a b Emm. Papadakis, Nikolaos (2006). Eleftherios K. Venizelos - A Biography. National Research Foundation "Eleftherios K. Venizelos". pp. 48–50.
- ^ a b 100+2 Χρόνια Ελλάδα [100+2 Years of Greece]. Vol. A. I Maniateas Publishing Enterprises. 2002. pp. 208–209.
- ^ a b 100+2 Χρόνια Ελλάδα [100+2 Years of Greece]. Vol. A. I Maniateas Publishing Enterprises. 2002. pp. 230–231.
- ^ a b Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 615.
- ISBN 9780723215288.
- ^ Hatzilyras, Alexandros Michail (March 2003). "Η καθιέρωση της ελληνικής σημαίας" [The adoption of the Greek flag]. Hellenic Army General Staff (in Greek). Archived from the original on 2 April 2007. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
- ^ a b c d e Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 243.
- ^ a b Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 281.
- ^ Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 296.
- ^ Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 299–300.
- ^ Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1936, p. 344.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Yearly Statistics of Greece" (PDF). National Printing House. 1934. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
- ^ a b c d e Maddison Project (2018). "Maddison Project Database 2018". Retrieved 29 January 2019.
- ^ a b c Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 338.
- ^ Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 339.
- ^ Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1936, p. 482.
- ^ a b c "Yearly Statistics of Greece" (PDF). National Printing House. 1935. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
- ^ "Yearly Statistics of Greece" (PDF). National Printing House. 1930. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
- ^ Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1936, p. 338.
- ^ "Yearly Statistics of Greece" (PDF). National Printing House. 1931. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
- ^ Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1936, p. 172.
- ^ a b c d e Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 150.
- ^ )
- ^ a b Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 153–154.
- ^ Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 162.
- ^ Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1936, p. 168.
- ^ a b c d "Οικονομικό Δελτίο" [Financial Report] (PDF). www.bankofgreece.gr. Bank of Greece. July 1999.
- ISBN 978-960-310-286-1.
- ^ a b Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 155.
- ^ Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1931, p. 125.
- )
- ^ a b c d Sophia Lazaretou (2003). "Greek Monetary Economics in Retrospect: The Adventures of the Drachma" (PDF). National Bank of Greece. Retrieved 2 March 2014.
- ^ Michalis M. Psalidopoulos (2011). "Monetary Management and Economic Crisis: The Policy of the Bank of Greece, 1929–1941" (PDF). National Bank of Greece. Retrieved 2 March 2014.
- ^ Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1936, p. 524.
- ^ "Δραχμή" [Drachma]. www.bankofgreece.gr. Bank of Greece. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
- ^ a b Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1936, p. 525.
- ^ a b Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1936, p. 106.
- ^ Greek National Tourism Organization. "Ιστορία" [History]. www.gnto.gov.gr (in Greek). Retrieved 2 September 2018.
- ^ ISBN 978-960-310-286-1.
- ^ a b c d e f Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 223–237.
- ^ a b c Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1936, p. 111–113.
- ^ JSTOR 1785338.
- ^ Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 412.
- ^ a b c Νόμος 5733 [Law 5733] (PDF) (in Greek), Athens: Hellenic Parliament, 11 October 1932
- ^ a b Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 414.
- ^ ISBN 9788884924650.
- ^ ISSN 1106-4110.
- ISBN 9780199202812.
- ISBN 9781134729333.
- ISBN 9780857714701.
- ^ a b Great Greek Encyclopedia, p. 408.
- ^ a b Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1936, p. 71.
- ^ ISBN 978-069-104-356-2.
- ^ a b c Babiniotis, Georgios (2002). Συνοπτική Ιστορία Της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας [A Concise History of the Greek Language] (Fifth ed.). pp. 199–202.
- ^ a b Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1936, p. 55–56.
- ^ ISBN 978-960-310-286-1.
- ^ Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1936, p. 353–354.
- ^ Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1936, p. 352.
Bibliography
Sources
- Ioannis D. Stefanidis (2006), "Reconstructing Greece as a European State: Venizelos' Last Premiership 1928–1932", Eleftherios Venizelos - The Trials of Statesmanship, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 978-074-863-364-7
- ISBN 978-960-382-818-1
- Mavrogordatos, George Themistocles (1983), Stillborn Republic: Social Coalitions and Party Strategies in Greece, 1922–1936, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-04358-9
- "Ἑλλάς - Ἑλληνισμὸς" [Greece - Hellenism], Μεγάλη Ἐλληνικὴ Ἐγκυκλοπαιδεῖα, vol. 10, Athens: Pyrsos Co. Ltd., 1934
- Tzokas, Spyros (2002), Ο Ελευθέριος Βενιζέλος και το Εγχείρημα του Αστικού Εκσυχρονισμού 1928–1932 [Eleftherios Venizelos and the Attempt at Urban Modernisation 1928–1932], Athens: Themelio, ISBN 978-960-310-286-1
Primary sources
The following are publicly available primary sources relating to the era of the Second Hellenic Republic, in the Greek language, primarily in the form of statistical yearbooks. These aimed to "provide a picture of life in Greece through numbers".[1]
- Michalopoulos, Ioannis G., ed. (May 1931), Στατιστικὴ Ἑπετηρὶς τῆς Ἑλλάδος–1930 [Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1930] (PDF) (in Greek and French), Athens: Hellenic Statistical Authority, archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016
- ——, ed. (April 1932), Στατιστικὴ Ἑπετηρὶς τῆς Ἑλλάδος–1931 [Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1931] (PDF) (in Greek and French), Athens: Hellenic Statistical Authority, archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2018
- ——, ed. (April 1934), Στατιστικὴ Ἑπετηρὶς τῆς Ἑλλάδος–1933 [Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1933] (PDF) (in Greek and French), Athens: Hellenic Statistical Authority, archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2018
- ——, ed. (June 1935), Στατιστικὴ Ἑπετηρὶς τῆς Ἑλλάδος–1934 [Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1934] (PDF) (in Greek and French), Athens: Hellenic Statistical Authority, archived from the original (PDF) on 31 January 2019
- ——, ed. (June 1936), Στατιστικὴ Ἑπετηρὶς τῆς Ἑλλάδος–1935 [Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1935] (PDF) (in Greek and French), Athens: Hellenic Statistical Authority, archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2018
- ——, ed. (May 1937), Στατιστικὴ Ἑπετηρὶς τῆς Ἑλλάδος–1936 [Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1936] (PDF) (in Greek and French), Athens: Hellenic Statistical Authority, archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2018 – This yearbook concerns the first year after the restoration of the monarchy.
- Σύνταγμα τῆς Ἑλληνικὴς Δημοκρατίας [Constitution of the Hellenic Republic] (PDF) (in Greek), Athens: Hellenic Parliament, 3 June 1927, archived from the original (PDF) on 3 October 2018
External links
- Hellenic Parliament - Constitutional History of Greece
- Greece during the Interwar Period, 1923–1940, from the Foundation of the Hellenic World
- ^ Statistical Yearbook of Greece–1933, Preamble.