Gera
Gera | |
---|---|
Gera Central Station, Textima Footbridge crossing the White Elster , Salvator Church, town hall, view of Gera-Untermhaus with St Mary's Church, market square | |
Location of Gera within Thuringia Urban district | |
First mentioned | 995 |
Government | |
• Lord mayor (2018–24) | Julian Vonarb[1] (Ind.) |
Area | |
• Total | 152.19 km2 (58.76 sq mi) |
Elevation | 194 m (636 ft) |
Population (2022-12-31)[2] | |
• Total | 93,634 |
• Density | 620/km2 (1,600/sq mi) |
Time zone | UTC+01:00 (CET) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+02:00 (CEST) |
Postal codes | 07545–07557 |
Dialling codes | 0365, 0336695 |
Vehicle registration | G |
Website | www.gera.de |
Gera is a city in the German state of
First mentioned in 995 and developing into a city during the 13th century, Gera has historical significance as being one of the main residences of the Ducal
Over the 19th century, Gera became a centre of the textile industry and saw a period of rapid growth. In 1952, the city also became an administrative centre in
Since 1990, many of Gera's buildings have been restored and big urban planning programmes like the Bundesgartenschau 2007 were implemented to stimulate Gera's economy. Sights include some retained buildings of the royal residence epoque and many public and private buildings from the economic heyday between 1870 and 1930. The famous painter Otto Dix was born in Gera in 1891.
History
Middle Ages
The place name Gera originally referred to the area of the Elster river valley where the city stands now. The name most likely[original research?] originated before the European Migration Period – the people who first settled the area during the 8th century adopted the name. The first known documentary mention of Gera dates from 995.
In 999 Emperor
Early modern period
The
In 1673, the Reussians were raised to Imperial Counts which granted them full sovereignty within the Holy Roman Empire; Gera became their royal residence. In 1686 and 1780, big town fires destroyed most buildings in Gera. The town was rebuilt relatively uniform during the 1780s in late-Baroque style, which marks the inner city until today.
In 1806
Since 1815
The Gera line of Reussians died out in 1802, so that it had no royal residence until the new one moved there from Schleiz in 1848. From 1848 to 1918 Gera served as the capital of the Principality of Reuss-Gera. With the industrial revolution in the mid-19th century, Gera grew rapidly, due largely to its textile industry, which saw the first Power loom installed in 1836. In 1859, Gera was first connected by railway to Halle via Zeitz and Weißenfels. During the following decades, rail lines in all directions made Gera to a transport hub, and the town kept growing. The second electric tram in Germany was installed in Gera in 1892.
After World War I, during the
After the Nazi takeover of Germany, the Jewish community of Gera was destroyed, the synagogue burnt down in the Kristallnacht in 1938 and the city's Jews emigrated or were murdered in concentration camps. A month before the end of World War II, on 6 April 1945, U.S. bombing destroyed parts of the city and killed 514 residents. Some 300 buildings were hit, including the Osterstein castle and several historic buildings in city centre, many of which weren't rebuilt after the war. U.S. forces occupied Gera on 14 April 1945 but were replaced by the Soviets on 1 July 1945.[4]
Gera became part of the
After German reunification in 1990, Gera became part of the restored state of Thuringia. However, Gera lost most of its administrative functions after reunification, and nearly all the city's factories were closed. This led to a continuing economic crisis with significant unemployment, and the city's population declined from 135,000 in 1990 to less than 100,000 a decade later.
The city hosted the Bundesgartenschau (federal horticultural exhibition) in 2007.
Geography and demographics
Topography
Gera is located in a smooth-hilly landscape in eastern Thuringia at the
Small tributaries of the White Elster river within the borders of Gera are the Erlbach on the western side and the Wipsenbach, Gessenbach and Brahme on the eastern side.
Climate
Gera has a humid continental climate (Dfb) or an oceanic climate (Cfb) according to the Köppen climate classification system.[6][7] Summers are warm and sometimes humid, winters are relatively cold. The city's topography creates a microclimate caused through the basin position with sometimes inversion in winter (quite cold nights under −20 °C (−4 °F)) and heat and inadequate air circulation in summer. Annual precipitation is only 591 millimeters (23.3 in) with moderate rainfall throughout the year. Light snowfall mainly occurs from December through February, but snow cover does not usually remain for long.
Climate data for Gera (1991–2020 normals) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 15.3 (59.5) |
18.9 (66.0) |
23.9 (75.0) |
29.5 (85.1) |
31.5 (88.7) |
37.3 (99.1) |
37.3 (99.1) |
37.5 (99.5) |
31.8 (89.2) |
28.6 (83.5) |
19.2 (66.6) |
16.9 (62.4) |
37.5 (99.5) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 2.8 (37.0) |
4.2 (39.6) |
8.4 (47.1) |
13.9 (57.0) |
18.3 (64.9) |
21.6 (70.9) |
24.2 (75.6) |
24.0 (75.2) |
19.0 (66.2) |
13.4 (56.1) |
7.4 (45.3) |
3.7 (38.7) |
13.4 (56.1) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 0.3 (32.5) |
1.0 (33.8) |
4.3 (39.7) |
8.8 (47.8) |
13.0 (55.4) |
16.3 (61.3) |
18.5 (65.3) |
18.3 (64.9) |
13.9 (57.0) |
9.2 (48.6) |
4.5 (40.1) |
1.3 (34.3) |
9.1 (48.4) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −2.4 (27.7) |
−2.1 (28.2) |
0.5 (32.9) |
3.7 (38.7) |
7.5 (45.5) |
11.0 (51.8) |
13.0 (55.4) |
13.0 (55.4) |
9.4 (48.9) |
5.7 (42.3) |
1.8 (35.2) |
−1.2 (29.8) |
5.0 (41.0) |
Record low °C (°F) | −26.5 (−15.7) |
−25.0 (−13.0) |
−20.4 (−4.7) |
−8.4 (16.9) |
−4.3 (24.3) |
0.4 (32.7) |
3.6 (38.5) |
0.8 (33.4) |
−2.1 (28.2) |
−7.5 (18.5) |
−12.6 (9.3) |
−24.8 (−12.6) |
−26.5 (−15.7) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 32.5 (1.28) |
27.6 (1.09) |
38.6 (1.52) |
32.3 (1.27) |
56.8 (2.24) |
67.7 (2.67) |
80.5 (3.17) |
67.4 (2.65) |
60.1 (2.37) |
43.8 (1.72) |
45.7 (1.80) |
39.9 (1.57) |
592.8 (23.34) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 15.5 | 13.9 | 16.0 | 11.7 | 14.0 | 13.9 | 14.7 | 13.6 | 12.2 | 14.0 | 15.1 | 15.7 | 170.3 |
Average snowy days (≥ 1.0 cm) | 12.8 | 11.2 | 5.3 | 0.6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2 | 2.6 | 8.3 | 41 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
84.8 | 81.6 | 77.9 | 71.5 | 71.8 | 72.1 | 69.3 | 69.8 | 76.7 | 82.5 | 86.5 | 86.5 | 77.6 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 64.4 | 81.9 | 125.2 | 182.0 | 213.1 | 212.7 | 222.9 | 212.6 | 158.6 | 116.1 | 65.7 | 56.0 | 1,709.2 |
Source 1: World Meteorological Organization[8] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: DWD (extremes)[9] |
Administrative division
Gera abuts the following municipalities:
- in the Burgenlandkreis district in the north: Wetterzeube and Gutenborn in the federal state of Saxony-Anhalt
- in the Greiz district in the east: Pölzig, Hirschfeld, Brahmenau, Schwaara, Korbußen, Ronneburg, Kauern, Hilbersdorf and Linda; in the south: Endschütz, Wünschendorf, Zedlitz and Hundhaupten; in the west: Saara, Kraftsdorf, Hartmannsdorf and Bad Köstritz
- in the Saale-Holzland district: Silbitz in the north-west.
The 12 statistical districts are: |
|
|
The main urban quarters are the city centre, Untermhaus (incorporated 1919) in the west, Langenberg (1950), Tinz (1919) and Bieblach (1905) in the north, Leumnitz (1919) in the east, Pforten (1919) and Zwötzen (1919) in the south-east as well as Debschwitz (1912) and Lusan (1919) in the south-west.
Demographics
For centuries, Gera was a small town of about 2,000 inhabitants. As the textile business saw a first peak, the population rose to 7,000 in 1800 and further to 17,000 after the early stage of industrialisation in 1870. Gera's heyday between 1870 and 1930 led to a demographic boom with a population of 83,000 at the end of this phase in 1930. In 1950, Gera had 98,000 inhabitants and the all-time peak was reached in 1988 with a population of 135,000. After the German reunification in 1990, the city saw a significant decline in population, despite the large incorporations of 1994. The population shrunk to 113,000 in 2000 and 95,000 in 2012.
The average decrease of population between 2009 and 2012 was approximately 0.55% p. a, whereas the population in bordering rural regions is shrinking with accelerating tendency. Suburbanization played only a small role in Gera. It occurred after the reunification for a short time in the 1990s, but most of the suburban areas were situated within the administrative city borders. During the 1990s and the 2000s, many inhabitants left Gera to search a better life in west Germany or other major east German cities like Jena or Leipzig. Since 2010, emigration is no big issue anymore. Now, the birth deficit, caused by the high average age of the population, is getting a bigger problem because the immigration isn't sufficient to compensate it yet. Despite urban planning activities to tear down unused flats, vacancy is still a problem with rates around 12% (according to 2011 EU census). A positive side effect for the inhabitants is that Gera has one of the lowest rent levels in Germany.
The birth deficit was 715 in 2012, this is -7.5 per 1,000 inhabitants (Thuringian average: -4.5; national average: -2.4). The net migration rate was +3.6 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2012 (Thuringian average: -0.8; national average: +4.6).[10] The most important regions of origin of Gera migrants are bordering rural areas of Thuringia, Saxony-Anhalt and Saxony as well as foreign countries like Poland, Russia, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria.
Like other eastern German cities, Gera has only a small foreign population: circa 1.6% are non-Germans by citizenship and overall 5.0% are migrants (according to
Largest groups of foreign residents | |
Nationality | Population (31.12.2020) |
---|---|
Syria | 1,960 |
Afghanistan | 743 |
Romania | 585 |
Iraq | 358 |
Russia | 272 |
Poland | 203 |
Bulgaria | 187 |
Somalia | 185 |
Turkey | 175 |
Vietnam | 166 |
Eritrea | 157 |
Serbia | 148 |
Czech Republic | 104 |
Culture, sights and cityscape
Museums
There are some museums in Gera:
- The Orangerie at Orangerieplatz hosts an exhibition of art from the Middle Ages to the contemporary period.
- The Otto-Dix-Haus (“Otto Dix House”) at Mohrenplatz 4, birthplace and childhood home of the famous artist Otto Dix, has a collection of his drawings, prints, paintings and childhood sketch books, and an exhibition about his life.
- The Museum für Angewandte Kunst (Museum for Applied Arts) at Greizer Straße shows 20th century contemporary art (inside "Ferber House"). It displays collections of Bauhaus ceramics by the artists Otto Lindig und Theodor Bogler; architectural works of Thilo Schoder; and photographs by Aenne Biermann.[11]
- The Museum für Naturkunde (Natural History Museum) at Nicolaiberg hosts a natural history exhibition (inside the "Schreiber House", the oldest building in the city), with its adjacent botanical garden, the Botanischer Garten Gera
- The Stadtmuseum (city museum) at Museumsplatz shows an exhibition of Gera's municipal history.
- The Haus Schulenburg (Schulenburg House) at Straße des Friedens is a factory owner's mansion, built in 1913/14 by the famous architect Henry van de Velde. It hosts topical furniture and decoration and can be visited.
Image gallery
-
Orangerie
-
Otto Dix House
-
Museum for Applied Arts
-
Natural History Museum
-
City museum
-
Schulenburg House
Cityscape
Like its western neighbour-city
Image gallery
-
Gründerzeit architecture at Friedrich Engels Street
-
Villa Eichenberg
-
Villa Hirsch
-
Villa Jahr (1905–1907)
-
Meyer House (1927)
-
Former Schäfer Hospital, Bauhaus style (1929)
Sights and architectural heritage
Churches
- The St. Saviour's Church at Nicolaiberg is the evangelical main church of Gera, built between 1717 and 1720 by David Schatz in Baroque style.
- The Trinity Church at Heinrichstraße is an evangelical parish church (since 1886), built between 1609 and 1611 as cemetery church.
- The St. John's Church at Clara-Zetkin-Straße is an evangelical parish church, built between 1881 and 1885 in neo-Gothic style.
- The St. Mary's Church at Untermhaus district is the evangelical parish church of the former village Untermhaus, built around 1450.
- The St. Elizabeth's Church at Kleiststraße is the catholic parish church of Gera, built in 2000 in modern style as one of only few bigger new churches in Thuringia after 1990.
- The St. Martin's Church at Zwötzen district is an evangelical parish church, built in 1895 in neo-Gothic style.
- The Fourteen Holy Helpers Church at Langenberg district is an evangelical parish church, was rebuilt during the 1750s.
Image gallery
-
St. Saviour's Church
-
Trinity Church
-
St. John's Church
-
St. Mary's Church
-
St. Martin's Church
-
Fourteen Holy Helpers Church
Other sights
- The town hall at Marktplatz (market square) is one of the biggest Renaissance town halls in Germany with a nearly 60 m high tower, built between 1573 and 1576. The Marktplatz itself forms a good ensemble of 18th century patricians houses in late-Baroque style.
- The Stadttheater (city theatre) at Küchengartenallee is the former royal Reussian theatre, built in 1902 by Heinrich Seeling in neo-Baroque style.
- The Stadtapotheke (city pharmacy) is a Renaissance building at Marktplatz with a beautiful bay, established in 1592.
- The Küchengarten (literally “Kitchen Garden”) with the Orangerie is a park ensemble west of the city centre, established in 1732 by the Reussians.
- The Höhler is a cellar system under the city centre with a length of approx. 9 km (6 mi), established in 17th and 18th century for storing beer. A part can be visited via an entrance at Nicolaiberg 3.
- The Schloss Tinz (Tinz Castle) was the royal summer residence of the Reussians, built in 1748 in Baroque style with a surrounding park.
- The Schloss Osterstein (Osterstein Castle) was the main royal residence of the Reussians, built during the 16th century in Renaissance style. It was hit by bombs in 1945 and partially demolished in 1962. Only the tower remained.
- The city wall was demolished in the 19th century, only a small part at Stadtgraben remained.
Image gallery
-
Town hall
-
Theatre
-
Statue of Genius on the theatre roof
-
City Pharmacy
-
Orangerie at Küchengarten
-
Tinz Castle
-
Remains of Osterstein Castle
-
Tower of Osterstein Castle
-
City wall
-
Ferber's Tower
-
Veolia Stage in Hofwiesenpark
Economy and infrastructure
Basic economic data
In 2022, 22544 people were employed full-time in Gera with a median salary of EUR 2,595.34. The median wage in Gera is 10% lower compared to eastern Germany.[12]
Agriculture, industry and services
Agriculture has some importance in the rural districts of Gera, especially in the northern and eastern city parts. Approximately 57% of the municipal territory is in agricultural use: growing maize, rapeseed and crops as well as pasturing cattle.
The city's economy features industrial machinery (Dagro Gera GmbH), communications (DTKS GmbH,
Gera is a supra-centre according to the
Transport
By rail
Since the late 19th century, Gera has been a hub in the railway network. The first railway ran to the
The most important stations in Gera are the Gera main station (former Prussian station), where all the trains stop, and the Gera southern station (former Saxonian station), where all the trains, except the local ones to Weimar, stop. More stations in Gera are Langenberg at the Leipzig line, Zwötzen at the Saalfeld and Hof line as well as Gera Ost and Liebschwitz at the Plauen line. Freight transport by rail is immaterial in Gera since the 1990s.
By road
The two
By aviation
The closest regional airports are the
By bike
Cycling is becoming more popular since the construction of quality cycle tracks began in the 1990s. For tourists, there are the Weiße Elster track and the Thuringian city string track (Radweg Thüringer Städtekette). Both connect points of tourist interest, the first along the White Elster valley from the Elster Mountains at the Czech border to Saale river in Halle and second from Eisenach via Erfurt, Weimar, Jena and Gera to Altenburg. For inner city every-day traffic, some cycle lanes exist along several main streets.
Trams and buses
The Gera tram network was the second in Germany that launched electrical engines in 1892. Today, there are two long lines, one from Bieblach via city centre to Lusan (line 3) and another one – opened in 2006 – from Untermhaus via city centre to Zwötzen (line 1). The third short line is a connection between Lusan and the Zwötzen railway station (line 2). Another line is planned to connect Langenberg and the northern city parts. On line 3 is one course every 5 minutes, on line 1 every 10 minutes and on line 2 every 20 minutes.
The bus network connects districts without trams as well as neighbouring municipalities that do not have a rail connection.
Education
Tertiary institutions are the private college SRH Fachhochschule für Gesundheit Gera (
Furthermore, there are four Gymnasiums, all of them are state-owned. The Goethe-Gymnasium/Rutheneum seit 1608 (“since 1608”) focuses on music education as an elite boarding school, in addition to the common curriculum.
Politics
The first freely elected mayor after German reunification was independent Ralf Rauch, who served from 1994 to 2006. He was succeeded by Norbert Vornehm of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), who served from 2006 to 2012. Viola Hahn was elected in 2012, but was defeated seeking re-election in 2018, failing to progress to the second round. Julian Vonarb was elected, and has since served as mayor. The most recent mayoral election was held on 15 April 2018, with a runoff held on 29 April, and the results were as follows:
Candidate | Party | First round | Second round | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Votes | % | Votes | % | |||
Julian Vonarb | Independent | 9,182 | 23.5 | 24,777 | 69.8 | |
Dieter Lauenbach | Alternative for Germany | 8,305 | 21.3 | 10,741 | 30.2 | |
Viola Hahn | Independent | 8,050 | 20.6 | |||
Norbert Hein | Independent | 6,853 | 17.5 | |||
Margit Jung | The Left | 5,201 | 13.3 | |||
Nils Fröhlich | Alliance 90/The Greens | 1,487 | 3.8 | |||
Valid votes | 39,078 | 99.2 | 35,518 | 98.2 | ||
Invalid votes | 299 | 0.8 | 653 | 1.8 | ||
Total | 39,377 | 100.0 | 36,171 | 100.0 | ||
Electorate/voter turnout | 79,724 | 49.4 | 79,671 | 45.4 | ||
Source: Wahlen in Thüringen |
The most recent city council election was held on 26 May 2019, and the results were as follows:
Party | Lead candidate | Votes | % | +/- | Seats | +/- | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alternative for Germany (AfD) | Harald Frank | 36,344 | 28.8 | New | 12 | New | |
The Left (Die Linke) | Andreas Schubert | 23,155 | 18.3 | 13.2 | 8 | 5 | |
Christian Democratic Union (CDU) | Christian Klein | 16,280 | 12.9 | 11.7 | 6 | 4 | |
Citizenry Gera (BSG) | Ulrich Porst | 9,656 | 7.6 | 6.3 | 3 | 3 | |
For Gera (FG) | Sandra Graupner | 8,588 | 6.8 | New | 3 | New | |
Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne) | Nils Fröhlich | 8,483 | 6.7 | 2.2 | 3 | 1 | |
Social Democratic Party (SPD) | Heiner Fritzsche | 8,091 | 6.4 | 2.9 | 3 | 1 | |
Free Voters (FW) | Norbert Hein | 4,129 | 3.3 | New | 1 | New | |
Liberal Alliance (LA) | Anne Kathrin Hildebrand | 3,647 | 2.9 | New | 1 | New | |
Free Democratic Party (FDP) | Falk Nerger | 3,440 | 2.7 | 0.3 | 1 | ±0 | |
Die PARTEI (PARTEI) | Ingo Kaschta | 3,418 | 2.7 | New | 1 | New | |
National Democratic Party (NPD) | Gordon Richter | 1,169 | 0.9 | 2.9 | 0 | 2 | |
Valid votes | 42,808 | 96.8 | |||||
Invalid votes | 1,420 | 3.2 | |||||
Total | 44,228 | 100.0 | 42 | ±0 | |||
Electorate/voter turnout | 78,537 | 56.3 | 12.7 | ||||
Source: Wahlen in Thüringen |
Twin towns – sister cities
- Arnhem, Netherlands
- Fort Wayne, United States
- Goražde, Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Kuopio Finland
- Pskov, Russia
- Rostov-on-Don, Russia
- Saint-Denis, France
- Skierniewice, Poland
- Sliven, Bulgaria
- Timișoara, Romania
Notable people
- Friedrich August Schmidt (1795-1866), painter, lithographer and porcelain painter
- Heinrich Reinhold (1788–1825), painter and engraver
- Otto Lummer (1860–1925), physicist
- Otto Dix (1891–1969), painter and printmaker
- Rudolf Paul (1893–1978), politician, President of Thuringia 1945–1947
- Charlotte Hohmann (1900–1971), magazine editor-in-chief of Die Frau von heute
- Bernhard Wehner (1909–1995), SS-officer (Hauptsturmführer), criminal inspector and journalist
- Dietrich Peltz (1914–2001), Luftwaffe general
- Georg Buschner (1925–2007), football player, head coach East Germany national football team
- Rainer Ortleb (born 1944), politician (FDP), 1990–1991 Federal Minister for Special Affairs and from 1991 to 1994 Federal Minister of Education and Science
- Max Frankel (born 1930), executive editor, New York Times 1986–1994
- Klaus Kropfinger (1930–2016), musicologist
- Helga Königsdorf (born 1938), mathematician and author
- Thilo Sarrazin (born 1945), German politician (SPD), author
- Wolfgang Tiefensee (born 1955), politician (SPD)
- Marlies Göhr (born 1958), athlete
- Olaf Ludwig (born 1960), racing cyclist
- Heike Drechsler (born 1964), Olympic gold medallist long jumper
- Jens Heppner (born 1964), racing cyclist
- John Degenkolb (born 1989), racing cyclist
- Marcel Eckardt (born 1989), snooker referee
- Bianca Schmidt (born 1990), footballer
References
- Notes
- ^ Gewählte Bürgermeister - aktuelle Landesübersicht, Freistaat Thüringen, accessed 13 July 2021.
- Thüringer Landesamt für Statistik. June 2023.
- ^ Christopher Clark, "The Iron Kingdom" (London, 2006), p. 305.
- ISBN 978-3-86568-636-7, pp. 178–179.
- ^ Der Schrei nach Freiheit. 17. Juni 1953 in Thüringen. Exhibit of the Stiftung Ettersberg in the Thüringian Landtag, June 2012.
- . Retrieved 22 January 2013.
- ISSN 1027-5606.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) (direct: Final Revised Paper - ^ "World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991–2020". World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 12 October 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
- ^ "Extremwertanalyse der DWD-Stationen, Tagesmaxima, Dekadenrekorde, usw" (in German). DWD. Retrieved 18 November 2023.
- ^ According to Thüringer Landesamt für Statistik
- ^ Museum for Applied Arts German website, last accessed January 13, 2010. Gera.de (2009-12-23). Retrieved on 2011-06-19.
- ^ Kraus, Bürgerreporterin Greta (2022-08-14). "Der Medianlohn in Gera ist im Vergleich zu Ostdeutschland um 10% niedriger". meinanzeiger.de (in German). Retrieved 2022-09-13.
- ^ According to Thüringer Landesamt für Statistik
- ^ "Dhge Verzeichnet Deutlichen Zuwachs an Studenten – Gera".
- ^ "Partnerstädte". gera.de (in German). Gera. Retrieved 2021-02-03.
External links
- Gera travel guide from Wikivoyage
- Official website of Gera
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. X (9th ed.). 1879. p. 438. .