History and culture of substituted amphetamines
During
Due to the large underground market for these drugs, they are often illegally synthesized by clandestine chemists, trafficked, and sold on the black market.[17] Based on seizures of drugs and precursor chemicals, illicit amphetamine production and trafficking is much less prevalent than that of methamphetamine.[17]
History of amphetamine and methamphetamine
Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 in Germany by Romanian chemist,
During World War II, both the Allied and Axis forces experimented giving amphetamine and methamphetamine to select servicemen for their stimulant and performance-enhancing effects.[4][9][10] In the 1950s, there was a rise in the legal prescription of methamphetamine to the American public.[19] Methamphetamine constituted half of the amphetamine salts for the original formulation for the diet drug Obetrol.[19] Methamphetamine was also marketed for sinus inflammation or for non-medicinal purposes as "pep pills" or "bennies".[19] A thriving black market in pep pills among long-haul truck drivers in the 1950s and 1960s, linked to long drive times and intense competitive pressures within the industry, contributed to federal efforts by the late 1960s to curtail non-medical use of the substance.[23]
Also in the 1950s, the Japanese Ministry of Health banned stimulant production, although drug companies continued to produce stimulants that wound up on the black market. From 1951 to 1954, a series of acts were passed by the Japanese government to try to stop production and sale of stimulants; however, the production and sale of stimulant drugs continued through criminal syndicates such as Yakuza criminal organizations. On the streets, it is also known as S, Shabu, and Speed, in addition to its old trademarked name.[24][25]
The United States in the 1960s saw the start of significant use of clandestinely manufactured methamphetamine, most of which was produced by
After decades of reported abuse, in 1965 the
In 1997 and 1998, researchers at
Substituted amphetamine use has historically been especially common among Major League Baseball players and is usually known by the slang term "greenies".[34] In 2006, the MLB banned the use of amphetamine. The ban is enforced through periodic drug-testing. However, the MLB has received some criticism because the punitive consequences for amphetamine use are dramatically less severe than for anabolic steroid use, with the first offense bringing only a warning and further testing.[35][36]
Methamphetamine was formerly in widespread use by truck drivers to combat symptoms of
Up to a quarter of college students use Adderall to help them focus on their studies instead of its intended purpose of helping people with ADHD. This use sometimes continues after the student graduates college due to its addictive properties.[38]
As of 2015, amphetamines, especially Adderall, were increasingly being used by young white-collar workers who work long hours at demanding work. Many felt drug use was necessary to perform adequately.[39]
Military use
One of the earliest uses of amphetamine and methamphetamine was during World War II, when they were used by Axis and Allied forces.[40]
As early as 1919, Akira Ogata synthesized methamphetamine via reduction of ephedrine using red phosphorus and iodine. Later, the chemists Hauschild and Dobke from the German pharmaceutical company Temmler developed an easier method for converting ephedrine to methamphetamine. As a result, it was possible for Temmler to market it on a large scale as a nonprescription drug under the trade name Pervitin (methamphetamine hydrochloride).[41] Pervitin was commonly used by the German and Finnish militaries.[40][42] Adolf Hitler is rumored to have begun using amphetamine occasionally after 1937, and to have become addicted to it in late 1942;[43] although this is disputed by historians who argue he was suffering from health issues.[44]
It was widely distributed across German military ranks and divisions, from elite forces to tank crews and aircraft personnel, with millions of tablets being distributed for its stimulant effects and to induce extended wakefulness.[45]
More than 35 million three-milligram doses of Pervitin were manufactured for the German army and air force between April and July 1940; however, this amounts to only three tablets per serviceman a month.[45][44] Use of Pervitin was restricted by the Wehrmacht and Nazi Germany as a whole under the Opium Law, which required the drug be obtained through a physician's prescription.
After April 1941 the drug was no longer distributed to servicemen on a mass scale due to its dangerous side effects, and several deaths were attributed to Pervitin. Use continued albeit closely monitored. In the military, Pervitin was discouraged during combat due to its negative side effects, it was more commonly abused behind the front lines.
Despite the new controls, authorities observed that Pervitin consumption rose rapidly, and so did civilian production, from about seven and a half million tablets in 1941, to nine million tablets in 1942 and a similar amount the following year, to eight million tablets in 1944. As a rule, military production was about half of civilian production. These numbers can be misleading as Nazi Germany had a population of over 80 million during the war, individuals acquired only small numbers of doses at a time and were required to report usage to the authorities.[citation needed]
In Japan, methamphetamine was sold under the registered trademark of Philopon by Dainippon Pharmaceuticals (present-day
Amphetamine was also given to
The USAF banned the use of dextroamphetamine,[51] and due to amphetamines' addiction potential in some people, newer wakefulness-promoting drugs such as modafinil have been seen as possible safer alternatives for military use (as a go pill) in some countries, including the United States.[52]
Society and culture
In television
AMC's Breaking Bad, a crime drama series revolving around the large-scale illicit production of methamphetamine, has been lauded by critics and audiences alike for its realist approach to the portrayal of the international drug trade. It has also been called a "contemporary western" by series creator Vince Gilligan.[53]
On the TV show
In literature
The writers and poets of the
In 1965, beat writer Allen Ginsberg, a member of the hippie counterculture, which was very critical of substituted amphetamines, did an interview with the Los Angeles Free Press[55] in which he commented that "Speed is antisocial, paranoid making, it's a drag... all the nice gentle dope fiends are getting screwed up by the real horror monster Frankenstein speed freaks who are going round stealing and bad-mouthing everybody".[55] However, he also acknowledged that he had used speed to stay up all night writing.[55]
Amphetamine is frequently mentioned in the works of American gonzo journalist Hunter S. Thompson,[56] likely due to him mainly using Dexedrine for his writing process from 1964 to about 1974; before he began to write mostly under the influence of cocaine.[57] "Speed" not only appears among the inventory of drugs Thompson consumed for what could broadly be defined as recreational purposes, but also receives frequent, explicit mention as an essential component of his writing toolkit,[58] such as in his "Author's Note" in Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72.[59]
One afternoon about three days ago [the publishers] showed up at my door with no warning, and loaded about forty pounds of supplies into the room: two cases of Mexican beer, four quarts of gin, a dozen grapefruits, and enough speed to alter the outcome of six Super Bowls. ... Meanwhile, [...] with the final chapter still unwritten and the presses scheduled to start rolling in twenty-four hours [...] unless somebody shows up pretty soon with extremely powerful speed, there might not be a final chapter. About four fingers of king-hell Crank would do the trick, but I am not optimistic.
In the second part of
Scottish author Irvine Welsh often portrays drug use in his novels, though in one of his journalism works he comments on how drugs (including amphetamine) have become part of consumerism and how his novels Trainspotting and Porno reflect the changes in drug use and culture during the years that elapsed between the two texts.[61]
Millennial writers, such as Tao Lin and Megan Boyle, have used amphetamines in the form of Adderall heavily. Lin wrote about using Adderall in his novel Taipei. Boyle in her novel Liveblog. Both writers used amphetamines themselves while writing the aforementioned books. Boyle appeared to have abused Adderall to the point of psychosis and was at one point; heavily addicted. A publisher of Tyrant Books called it "one of the most personally honest books ever written" where she documented this difficult period of her life online to hold herself accountable to destructive behavior.[62][63]
In music
The northern soul and mod subcultures in England were known for their characteristic amphetamine use.[14] Their concerts generally involved people taking amphetamines to keep dancing all night. DJ Roger Eagle got out of the northern soul scene, saying: "All they wanted was fast-tempo black dance music... [but they were] too blocked on amphetamines to articulate exactly which Jackie Wilson record they wanted me to play."[64]
Many rock songs have been written about amphetamine. For example, in the track entitled "
Primus's songs "On the Tweek Again" and "Those Damned Blue-Collar Tweekers" directly reference widespread amphetamine use in rural America. Land Speed Record is an allusion to Hüsker Dü's amphetamine use.[citation needed] Amphetamine was widely abused in the 1980s underground punk-rock scene. Punk-rock band NOFX have incorporated references to amphetamines and other stimulants, the two most obvious being the song "Three on Speed" from the Surfer 8-inch LP (in reference to the three guys being on amphetamine while recording the album), and the album The Longest Line is in reference to a "line" of amphetamine ready for insufflation.
The Rolling Stones referenced the drug in their song "Can't You Hear Me Knocking" on the album Sticky Fingers ("Y'all got cocaine eyes / Yeah, ya got speed-freak jive now"). Lou Reed refers explicitly to the drug on his album Berlin, in the song "How Do You Think It Feels?". Reed's band The Velvet Underground, a creation of Andy Warhol's Factory Years, was fueled by amphetamines, as well as naming their second album White Light/White Heat after the drug. The Pulp song "Sorted for E's & Wizz" refers to British slang terms for ecstasy and amphetamines. English gothic rock band The Sisters of Mercy refers to the drug in their song "Amphetamine Logic" from their first album, First and Last and Always, and their singer Andrew Eldritch is associated with amphetamine use.[citation needed] The Byrds referenced amphetamines in the 1968 song "Artificial Energy" on the album The Notorious Byrd Brothers. Bob Dylan's song "Just Like a Woman" includes the line "her fog, her amphetamine, and her pearls."
Many rock and roll bands have named themselves after amphetamine and the drug slang and drug culture surrounding it. For example,
In film
Producer David O. Selznick, an amphetamine user, would often dictate long and rambling memos to his directors under the influence of amphetamine.[66] The documentary Shadowing The Third Man relates that Selznick introduced The Third Man director Carol Reed to the use of amphetamine, which allowed Reed to bring the picture in below budget and on schedule by filming nearly 22 hours at a time.[67]
The title of the 2009 movie "—and as commonly happens with transliteration of non-Chinese terms each character has independent meaning as an individual unrelated word.
In the second scene of the 2011 movie Drive (at 1:50) the auto mechanic shop owner played by Bryan Cranston delivers the following line to the Driver played by Ryan Gosling; "ya look like a zombie kid are yuh gettin any sleep, can I offer you some benzedrine, dexedrine, caffeine, nicotine" mirroring the title of the Jerry Reed song "Benzedrine, Caffeine, Nicotine, (Wish Me Luck)." Jerry Reed played the sidekick of the Burt Reynolds outlaw driver in the 1977 road rage film Smokey and the Bandit.
In mathematics
Perhaps the most notable example of this is Paul Erdős, one of the most prolific and successful mathematicians in human history.[15] He took amphetamine and methylphenidate occasionally throughout his early career.[15][68] He began taking them daily at age 58, when a doctor prescribed them to him to allay the depression associated with his mother's death, and didn't stop until his death at age 83.[15][68] He would also sustain himself on copious amounts of coffee and caffeine pills.[15][68] Erdős took amphetamine despite the concern of his friends, one of whom (Ron Graham) bet him $500 that he could not stop taking the drug for a month.[15][68] Erdős won the bet, but complained:[68]
You've showed me I'm not an addict. But I didn't get any work done. I'd get up in the morning and stare at a blank piece of paper. I'd have no ideas, just like an ordinary person. You've set mathematics back a month.
He then promptly resumed his amphetamine use.[68]
Illicit drug culture
Adderall in the video gaming industry
Adderall use in the video gaming industry has been receiving more and more attention in recent years. Many gamers have admitted to using it and have claimed that it has become a very widespread issue. Some gamers have even claimed that pills are regularly sold at professional tournaments. Adderall is peculiarly well suited to the medium, where victory depends on a competitor's alertness, ability to concentrate and hand-to-eye-coordination. As one StarCraft player wrote in 2011 on the game's official forums: "Adderall is basically a stimpack for gamers."[70]
The Electronic Sports League said that it would test players for performance-enhancing drugs starting at a tournament in August 2015. ESL said it would work with two international agencies – the same ones that help oversee anti-doping policies for the Olympics and other sports – to create anti-doping guidelines and a testing program for players. "We want to create a level playing field for all competitors and maintain the integrity of the sport," said James Lampkin, vice president of professional gaming at ESL. In addition to the ESL, Major League Gaming has spoken up. Bruce Dugan, a spokesman for Major League Gaming, said that the organization's policies prohibit the use of performance-enhancing drugs. However, the league has never conducted drug tests of its players. "Now that a lot of attention is being paid, it's something we'll look at for the 2016 season," spokesman Bruce Dugan said.[71]
Amphetamines in higher education
Non-medical use of amphetamines in higher education has seen a large increase in popularity. College and other higher education students have reported using amphetamines for many different purposes such as partying, self medication, and the most common being studying.
Recreational use
Both amphetamine and methamphetamine are used recreationally as
Slang terms
Slang terms for methamphetamine, especially common among illicit drug users, are numerous and vary from region to region.[78] Some names are crystal meth, meth, speed, crystal, ice, shards, shabu or shaboo, side, glass, gak, jib, crank, batu, tweak, piko, rock, tina, fast, pep, yaba, and cold.[78][79] Terms vary by region, subculture, and individual preference;[78] some of these regional and local names include: Philopon in East Asia, P in New Zealand, "ya ba" (Thai for "Crazy Medicine") in Thailand, bato (Filipino for rock or stone) in the Philippines, angel delight in Scotland, and tik in South Africa.[78][79][80][81] Vint, Russian for "a screw", refers to a very impure homemade form of methamphetamine in Russia.[82] In Thailand and Myanmar, ya ba pills have many slang terms, "WY",[81] such as "Athee" (Burmese for fruit), and "88".[citation needed] In Sweden tjack is a common slang term.[83]
Administration
.Inhalation
Crystal methamphetamine (most commonly, colloquially known as "crystal meth" or "ice") and free base forms of amphetamine are sufficiently volatile substances and this allows them to be vaporized by high heat (i.e. using a lighter) and the fumes are inhaled (or "smoked") from glass paraphernalia known as base pipes (most commonly, colloquially referred to as "bowl", "globe" or simply "pipe").
People who use stimulants, including methamphetamines, have historically been excluded from both medical model and harm reduction programs, which primarily treat injection-opioid-users and people with alcohol use disorders. [85]
The National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2016 by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare revealed that smoking is an increasingly favored route of administration among methamphetamine users in Australia.[86] The National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2019 suggests overall rates of methamphetamine use have declined over recent years, but among those who do use methamphetamine, 'ice' is the more popular form of the drug, and those who use 'ice' (as opposed to other forms of methamphetamine) are more likely to use it more regularly.[87]
Ya ba (a pill containing caffeine and methamphetamine) smokers often use a technique in which a ya ba pill is placed on aluminium foil that is heated underneath with a lighter, in turn vaporizing the pill so that it can be inhaled through a heat-resistant pipe.[81] This method of administration is sometimes referred to as "chasing the dragon".
Injection
A 2017 study involving fifty six female clients were interviewed by Nicholas E. Goeders of Louisiana State University suggests that the subjective rush from recreational methamphetamine use is proportional to the rate at which the blood level of the drug increases. [90] Consequently, a rapid onset of action increases the risk of psychological dependence/addiction independently of other risk factors, such as dosage and frequency of use.[91] Goeders concluded that "Without a doubt methamphetamine, when injected in "sufficient" purity and dose, can produce a subjective physiological response in women that is indistinguishable from an orgasm."[90]
Insufflation
Crystal methamphetamine and salts of amphetamine are sometimes powdered and
Rectal and vaginal
Rectal administration and intravaginal administration are less-popular drug routes in the community with comparatively little research into their effects.[92] Information on their use is largely anecdotal with reports of increased sexual pleasure and the effects of the drug lasting longer,[93] though as methamphetamine is centrally active in the brain, these effects are likely experienced through the higher bioavailability of the drug in the bloodstream and the faster onset of action than many other routes of administration.[94] Nicknames for the routes of administration within some methamphetamine communities include a "butt rocket", a "booty bump", "potato thumping", "turkey basting", "plugging", "booty-whaap", "boofing", "suitcasing", "hooping", "keistering", "shafting", "bumming", and "shelving" (vaginal).[92]
Illegal synthesis
Methamphetamine is most structurally similar to amphetamine. Synthesis is relatively simple, but entails risk with flammable and corrosive chemicals, particularly the solvents used in extraction and purification. The six major routes of production begin with either
One procedure uses the
The alternative Leuckart route also relies on P2P to produce a racemic product, but proceeds via
Illicit methamphetamine is more commonly made by the
Though dating back to the discovery of the drug, the
The conceptually similar Emde route involves reduction of ephedrine to chloroephedrine using thionyl chloride (SOCl2), followed by catalytic hydrogenation. The catalysts for this reaction are palladium or platinum.[95][113] The Rosenmund route also uses hydrogen gas and a palladium catalyst poisoned with barium sulfate (Rosenmund reduction), but uses perchloric acid instead of thionyl chloride.[98]
The
In recent years, a simplified "Shake 'n Bake"
Illegal laboratories
Short-term exposure to high concentrations of chemical vapors that exist in black-market methamphetamine laboratories can cause severe health problems and death.[118] Exposure to these substances can occur from volatile air emissions, spills, fires, and explosions.[118] Such methamphetamine labs are sometimes discovered when emergency personnel respond to fires due to improper handling of volatile or flammable materials.[118][119] Single-pot "shake and bake" syntheses are particularly prone to explode and ignite, and, when abandoned, still pose a severe hazard to firefighters.[119] Ingredients involved in synthesizing methamphetamine products illicitly (and seldom amphetamine as well) may be carcinogens, flammable, prone to react violently and explode with great force, or corrosive, as well as the compounds used to synthesize the aforementioned ingredients.
Methamphetamine cooks, their families, and first responders are at high risk of experiencing acute health effects from chemical exposure, including lung damage and chemical burns to the body.[118][120] After the seizure of a methamphetamine lab, a low exposure risk to chemical residues often exists, but this contamination can be sanitized.[120] Chemical residues and lab wastes that are left behind at a former methamphetamine lab can cause severe health problems for people who use the property.[120]
Impurities and adulterants
In Japan, methamphetamine seizures are usually white crystals of high purity, but contain impurities that vary according to the means of production, and are sometimes adulterated.
Diagnostic impurities are the naphthalenes 1-benzyl-methylnaphthalene and 1,3-dimethyl-2-phenylnaphthalene,[108] arising in the Nagai and Leuckart routes, and cis- or trans- 1,2-dimethyl-3-phenylaziridine, ephedrine, or erythro-3,4-dimethyl- 5-phenyloxazolidine, arising in the Nagai and Emde routes; these are absent in the reductive amination route.[98] Characteristic impurities of the Birch route include N-methyl-1-(1-(1,4-cyclohexadienyl))-2-propanamine.[114] Methamphetamine produced by the Birch route contains phenyl-2-propanone, the precursor for the reductive amination route, as a degradation product.[108] However, specific diagnostic impurities are not very reliable in practice, and it is generally preferable for forensic technicians to evaluate a larger profile of trace compounds.[95]
A common adulterant is
In the United States, illicit methamphetamine comes in a variety of forms with prices varying widely over time.
An impure form of methamphetamine is sold as a crumbly brown or off-white rock, commonly referred to as "peanut butter crank".
Rarely, the impure reaction mixture from the hydrogen iodide/red phosphorus route is used without further modification, usually by injection; it is called "ox blood".[114] "Meth oil" refers to the crude methamphetamine base produced by several synthesis procedures. Ordinarily it is purified by exposure to hydrogen chloride, as a solution or as a bubbled gas, and extraction of the resulting salt occurs by precipitation and/or recrystallization with ether/acetone.[114]
Trafficking and distribution
Until the early 1990s, the U.S. market for methamphetamine was supplied mostly by labs run by drug traffickers in both Mexico and California.[125] As of 2007,[update] drug and lab seizure data suggests that approximately 80% of the methamphetamine used in the United States originates from larger laboratories operated by Mexican-based syndicates on both sides of the border;[125] approximately 20 percent comes from small toxic labs (STLs) in the United States.[125] The 2006 National Drug Threat Assessment, produced by the Department of Justice, found "decreased domestic methamphetamine production in both small and large-scale laboratories."[126] It also noted a decline in domestic methamphetamine manufacture which was replaced by an increase in illicit Mexican production.[126]
As of February 2023,[update] the Sinaloa Cartel is the most active drug cartel involved in smuggling methamphetamine and other illicit drugs into the United States and trafficking wholesale quantities throughout the United States.[127][128]
See also
- Breaking Bad – television series involving the criminal production of methamphetamine
- Faces of Meth
- Methamphetamine in the United States
- Montana Meth Project
- Rolling meth lab
Notes
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Mexican TCOs pose the greatest criminal drug threat to the United States; no other group is currently positioned to challenge them. These Mexican poly-drug organizations traffic heroin, methamphetamine, cocaine, and marijuana throughout the United States, using established transportation routes and distribution networks. ... While all of these Mexican TCOs transport wholesale quantities of illicit drugs into the United States, the Sinaloa Cartel appears to be the most active supplier. The Sinaloa Cartel leverages its expansive resources and dominance in Mexico to facilitate the smuggling and transportation of drugs throughout the United States.
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