History of modern Egypt
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According to most scholars the history of modern
Muhammad Ali's dynasty became practically independent from Ottoman rule, following his military campaigns against the Empire and his ability to enlist large-scale armies, allowing him to control both Egypt and parts of North Africa and the Middle East. In 1882, the Khedivate of Egypt became part of the British sphere of influence in the region, a situation that conflicted with its position as an autonomous vassal state of the Ottoman Empire. The country became a British
In 2012, after more than a year under the interim government of the
Khedivate of Egypt
British administration
In 1882 opposition to European control led to growing tension amongst notable Egyptians, the most dangerous opposition coming from the army. A large military demonstration in September 1881 forced the Khedive Tewfiq to dismiss his Prime Minister. In April 1882, France and the United Kingdom sent warships to Alexandria to bolster the Khedive amidst a turbulent climate, spreading fear of invasion throughout the country.
Tawfiq moved to Alexandria for fear of his own safety as army officers led by
The British succeeded in defeating the
In 1906 the Denshawai incident provoked a questioning of British rule in Egypt. British administration ended nominally with the establishment of a protectorate and the installation of sultan Hussein Kamel in 1914, but a British military presence in Egypt lasted until June 1956.
Sultanate of Egypt
In 1914 as a result of the declaration of war with the Ottoman Empire, of which Egypt was nominally a part, Britain declared a Protectorate over Egypt and deposed the anti-British Khedive, Abbas Hilmi II, replacing him with his uncle Husayn Kamel, who was made Sultan of Egypt by the British. Egypt subsequently declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire.
A group known as the
From March to April 1919, there were mass demonstrations that became uprisings. This is known in Egypt as the
Initially, the British authorities deployed the police force in Cairo in response to the demonstrations, though control was soon handed over to
In February 1921, the British Parliament approved the agreement and Egypt was asked to send another mission to London with full powers to conclude a definitive treaty. Adli Pasha led this mission, which arrived in June 1921. However, the Dominion delegates at the 1921 Imperial Conference had stressed the importance of maintaining control over the Suez Canal Zone and Curzon could not persuade his Cabinet colleagues to agree to any terms that Adli Pasha was prepared to accept. The mission returned to Egypt in disgust.
Kingdom of Egypt
In December 1921, the British authorities in Cairo imposed martial law and once again deported Zaghlul. Demonstrations again led to violence. In deference to the growing nationalism and at the suggestion of the
Britain, however, continued to retain a strong influence in the newborn
During World War II, British troops used Egypt as its primary base for all Allied operations throughout the region. British troops were withdrawn to the Suez Canal area in 1947, but nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the war.[3]
Republic of Egypt
Coup of 1952
On 22–26 July 1952, a group of disaffected army officers (the "free officers") led by Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew
Nasser's rule
Emergence of Arab socialism
Nasser evolved into a charismatic leader, not only of Egypt but of the Arab world, promoting and implementing "Arab socialism."
When the United States held up military sales in reaction to Egyptian neutrality regarding the Soviet Union, Nasser concluded an arms deal with Czechoslovakia in September 1955.
When the US and the
United Arab Republic
In 1958 Egypt joined with the Republic of Syria and annexed the Gaza Strip, ruled by the All-Palestine Government, to form a state called the United Arab Republic. It existed until Syria's secession in 1961, although Egypt continued to be known as the UAR until 1971.
Nasser helped establish with India and Yugoslavia the Non-Aligned Movement of developing countries in September 1961, and continued to be a leading force in the movement until his death.
Regional intervention
Nasser had looked to a regime change in Yemen since 1957 and finally put his desires into practice in January 1962 by giving the Free Yemen Movement office space, financial support, and radio air time.
Nasser ruled as an autocrat but remained extremely popular within Egypt and throughout the Arab world. His willingness to stand up to the Western powers and to Israel won him support throughout the region. However, Nasser's independent foreign policy led to Israel launching the Six-Day War in 1967. This conflict saw the Egyptian, Syrian and Jordanian armed forces routed by the Israelis.
Israel afterward occupied the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip from Egypt, Golan Heights from Syria, and West Bank from Jordan. This defeat was a severe blow to Nasser's prestige both at home and abroad. Following the defeat, Nasser made a dramatic offer to resign, which was only retracted in the face of mass demonstrations urging him to stay. The last three years of his control over Egypt were far more subdued.
Sadat era
Sadat era refers to the presidency of Muhammad Anwar al-Sadat, the eleven-year period of Egyptian history spanning from the death of president Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1970, through Sadat's assassination by fundamentalist army officers on 6 October 1981. Sadat's presidency saw many changes in Egypt's direction, reversing some of the economic and political principles of Nasserism by breaking with Soviet Union to make Egypt an ally of the United States, initiated the peace process with Israel, re-instituting the multi-party system and abandoning socialism by launching the Infitah economic policy.
Under Soviet influence
After Nasser's death, another of the original revolutionary "
Following the disastrous Six-Day War of 1967, Egypt waged a War of Attrition in the Suez Canal zone. In 1971, three years into this war, Sadat endorsed in a letter the peace proposals of UN negotiator Gunnar Jarring, which seemed to lead to a full peace with Israel on the basis of Israel's withdrawal to its pre-war borders. This peace initiative failed as neither Israel nor the United States of America accepted the terms as discussed then. To provide Israel with more incentive to negotiate with Egypt and return the Sinai to it, and also because the Soviets had refused Sadat's requests for more military support, Sadat expelled the Soviet military advisers from Egypt and proceeded to bolster his army for a renewed confrontation with Israel.[8]
In the months before the 1973 war Sadat engaged in a diplomatic offensive and by the fall of 1973 had support for a war of more than a hundred states, including most of the countries of the Arab League, Non-Aligned Movement, and Organization of African Unity. Syria agreed to join Egypt in attacking Israel.
In October 1973, Egypt's armed forces achieved initial successes in the Crossing and advanced 15 km, reaching the depth of the range of safe coverage of its own air force. After Syrian forces were being repulsed, the Syrian government urged Sadat to move his forces deeper into Sinai. Without air cover, the Egyptian army suffered huge losses. In spite of huge losses they kept advancing, creating the chance to open a gap between army forces. That gap was exploited by a tank division led by Ariel Sharon, and he and his tanks managed to penetrate, reaching Suez City. In the meantime, the United States initiated a strategic airlift to provide replacement weapons and supplies to Israel and appropriate $2.2 billion in emergency aid. OPEC oil ministers, led by Saudi Arabia retaliated with an oil embargo against the US. A UN resolution supported by the United States and the Soviet Union called for an end to hostilities and for peace talks to begin. On 4 March 1974 Israel withdrew the last of its troops from the west side of the Suez Canal[9] and 12 days later Arab oil ministers announced the end of the embargo against the United States. For Sadat and many Egyptians the war was much more a victory than a draw, as the military objective of capturing a foothold of the Sinai was achieved.
Under Western influence
In foreign relations Sadat instigated momentous change. President Sadat shifted Egypt from a policy of confrontation with Israel to one of peaceful accommodation through negotiations. Following the
The outcome was the historic
Sadat used his immense popularity with the Egyptian people to try to push through vast economic reforms that ended the
Liberalization also included the reinstitution of due process and the legal banning of torture. Sadat dismantled much of the existing political machine and brought to trial a number of former government officials accused of criminal excesses during the Nasser era. Sadat tried to expand participation in the political process in the mid-1970s but later abandoned this effort. In the last years of his life, Egypt was wracked by violence arising from discontent with Sadat's rule and sectarian tensions, and it experienced a renewed measure of repression including extra judicial arrests.
Conflict with the Muslim Brotherhood
Another change Sadat made from the Nasser era was a bow towards the Islamic revival. Sadat loosened restrictions on the Muslim Brotherhood, allowing it to publish a monthly magazine, al-Dawa, which appeared regularly until September 1981 (although he did not allow the group's reconstitution.)[10]
In the late 1970s, he began calling himself 'The Believer President' and signing his name Mohammad Anwar Sadat.' He ordered Egypt's state-run television to interrupt programs with
Mubarak era
Presidential inauguration
On 6 October 1981,
Mubarak maintained Egypt's commitment to the Camp David peace process, while at the same time re-establishing Egypt's position as an Arab leader. Egypt was readmitted to the Arab League in 1989. Egypt also has played a moderating role in such international forums as the UN and the Nonaligned Movement.
1990s – economic reforms and struggle with radical Islamists
From 1991, Mubarak undertook an ambitious domestic economic reform program to reduce the size of the public sector and expand the role of the private sector. During the 1990s, a series of International Monetary Fund arrangements, coupled with massive external debt relief resulting from Egypt's participation in the Gulf War coalition, helped Egypt improve its macroeconomic performance. The economy of Egypt flourished during the 1990s and 2000s. The Government of Egypt tamed inflation bringing it down from double-digit to a single digit. Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita based on purchasing-power-parity (PPP) increased fourfold between 1981 and 2006, from US$1355 in 1981, to US$2525 in 1991, to US$3686 in 2001 and to an estimated US$4535 in 2006.
There was less progress in political reform. The
Shortly after mounting an unprecedented presidential campaign, Nour was jailed on forgery charges critics called phony; he was released on 18 February 2009.[12] Brotherhood members were allowed to run for parliament in 2005 as independents, garnering 88 seats, or 20 percent of the People's Assembly.
The
Decrease of influence
President Mubarak had tight, autocratic control over Egypt. However, a dramatic drop in support for Mubarak and his domestic economic reform program increased with surfacing news about his son Alaa being extremely corrupt and favored in government tenders and privatization. As Alaa started getting out of the picture by 2000, Mubarak's second son Gamal started rising in the National Democratic Party and succeeded in getting a newer generation of neo-liberals into the party and eventually the government. Gamal Mubarak branched out with a few colleagues to set up Medinvest Associates Ltd., which manages a private equity fund, and to do some corporate finance consultancy work.[14]
Civil unrest 2011-2014
2011 revolution and aftermath
Beginning on 25 January 2011, a series of street demonstrations, protests, and civil disobedience acts have taken place in Egypt, with organizers counting on the
The protests' main goal was to oust President Hosni Mubarak's regime.On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and fled Cairo. Vice President
On 13 February 2011, the high level military command of Egypt announced that both the constitution and the parliament of Egypt had been dissolved. The parliamentary election was to be held in September.[20]
A
A
Morsi's presidency
On 8 July 2012, Egypt's new president Mohamed Morsi said that he's overriding a military edict that dissolved the country's elected parliament and calling on lawmakers back into session.
On 10 July 2012, the
2012-2013 Egyptian protests
On 22 November 2012, Egyptian
The move has been criticized by
After Morsi
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On 30 June 2013, on the first anniversary of the election of Morsi, millions of protesters across Egypt took to the streets and demanded the immediate resignation of the president. On 1 July, the
During the months after the
El-Sisi Presidency
In the elections of June 2014 El-Sisi won with a percentage of 96.1%.[36] On 8 June 2014, Abdel Fatah el-Sisi was officially sworn in as Egypt's new president.[37] Under President el-Sisi, Egypt has implemented a rigorous policy of controlling the border to the Gaza Strip, including the dismantling of tunnels between the Gaza strip and Sinai.[38]
In April 2018, El-Sisi was re-elected by landslide in election with no real opposition.[39] In April 2019, Egypt’s parliament extended presidential terms from four to six years. President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi was also allowed to run for third term in next election in 2024.[40]
Under El-Sisi Egypt is said to have returned to authoritarianism. New constitutional reforms have been implemented, meaning strengthening the role of military and limiting the political opposition.[41] The constitutional changes were accepted in a referendum in April 2019.[42]
In December 2020, final results of the parliamentary election confirmed a clear majority of the seats for Egypt’s Mostaqbal Watn (Nation’s Future) Party, which strongly supports president El-Sisi. The party even increased its majority, partly because of new electoral rules.[43]
During the 2020–2021
See also
References
- ^ Ziad Fahmy, Ordinary Egyptians: Creating the Modern Nation through Popular Culture (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011), pp. 138-39.
- S2CID 159888450.
- ^ P.J. Vatikiotis, The History of Modern Egypt (4th ed., 1992).
- ISBN 978-0-8130-3137-8.
the prominent historian and commentator Abd al-Azim Ramadan, In a series of articles published in AlWafd, subsequently compiled in a hook published in 2000, Ramadan criticized the Nasser cult, …. The events leading up to the nationalization of the Suez Canal Company, as other events during Nasser's rule, Ramadan wrote, showed Nasser to be far from a rational, responsible leader. … His decision to nationalize the Suez Canal was his alone, made without political or military consultation. … The source of all this evil. Ramadan noted, was Nasser's inclination to solitary decision making… the revolutionary regime led by the same individual—Nasser— repeated its mistakes when it decided to expel the international peacekeeping force from the Sinai Peninsula and close the Straits of Tiran in 1967. Both decisions led to a state of war with Israel, despite the lack of military preparedness
- ^ Gilles Kepel, Le Prophete et Pharaon, p. 74
- ^ "Egypt Corrective Revolution 1971". Onwar.com. 16 December 2000. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- ^ Gilles Kepel, Jihad: the Trail of Political Islam, p. 83
- ^ "Anwar Sadat". Retrieved 22 January 2009.
- ^ "Egypt Regains Control of Both Banks of Canal". Los Angeles Times. 5 March 1974. p. I-5.
- ^ Gilles Kepel, Le Prophete et Pharaon, pp. 103-4
- ^ Murphy, Caryle, Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience, Simon and Schuster, 2002, p. 36
- ^ [1] Archived 19 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Arab Media & Society. Arabmediasociety.com. Retrieved on 2011-02-02.
- ^ Interview with Mr. Gamal Mubarak Chairman Of Medinvest Associates Ltd. Winne.com (14 January 1999). Retrieved on 2011-02-02.
- ^ Jailan Zayan (25 January 2011). "AFP – Egypt braces for nationwide protests". AFP. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (11 February 2010). "Mubarak Steps Down, Ceding Power to Military". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
- ^ "Egypt crisis: President Hosni Mubarak resigns as leader". BBC. 11 February 2010. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
- ^ Mubarak Resigns As Egypt's President, Armed Forces To Take Control Huffington Post/AP, 11 February 2011
- ^ Mubarak Flees Cairo for Sharm el-Sheikh, CBS News, 11 February 2011, retrieved 15 May 2012
- ^ "Egyptian Parliament dissolved, constitution suspended". BBC. 13 February 2011. Retrieved 13 February 2011.
- ^ Egypt's Historic Day Proceeds Peacefully, Turnout High For Elections. NPR. 28 November 2011. Last Retrieved 29 November 2011.
- ^ Weaver, Matthew (24 June 2012). "Muslim Brotherhood's Mohammed Morsi wins Egypt's presidential race". the Guardian.
- ^ "Mohamed Morsi sworn in as Egypt's president". www.aljazeera.com.
- ^ Watson, Ivan. "Court overrules Egypt's president on parliament". CNN. Retrieved 10 July 2012.
- ^ "Egypt unveils new cabinet, Tantawi keeps defence post". 3 August 2012.
- ^ "Egypt's President Mursi assumes sweeping powers". BBC News. 22 November 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- ^ "Rallies for, against Egypt president's new powers". Associated Press. 23 November 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- ^ "Egyptian voters back new constitution in referendum". BBC News. 25 December 2012.
- ^ "Mohamed Morsi signs Egypt's new constitution into law". the Guardian. 26 December 2012.
- ^ "Twitter / ELBaradei". 22 November 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- ^ "Egypt's President Morsi takes sweeping new powers". The Washington Post. 22 November 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- ^ Spencer, Richard (23 November 2012). "Violence breaks out across Egypt as protesters decry Mohammed Morsi's constitutional 'coup'". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- ^ "Egypt's Morsi overthrown". www.aljazeera.com.
- ^ Holpuch, Amanda; Siddique, Haroon; Weaver, Matthew (4 July 2013). "Egypt's interim president sworn in - Thursday 4 July". The Guardian.
- ^ "Egypt's new constitution gets 98% 'yes' vote". the Guardian. 18 January 2014.
- ^ "El-Sisi wins Egypt's presidential race with 96.91%". English.Ahram.org. Ahram Online. Retrieved 3 June 2014.
- ^ "Egypt's Sisi sworn in as president". the Guardian. 8 June 2014.
- ^ "Egypt's War against the Gaza Tunnels". Israel Defense. 4 February 2018.
- ^ "Egypt's Sisi wins 97 percent in election with no real opposition". Reuters. 2 April 2018.
- ^ "Egypt parliament extends presidential term to six years". www.aa.com.tr.
- ^ Mehmood, Ashna (31 March 2021). "Egypt's Return to Authoritarianism". Modern Diplomacy.
- ^ "Sisi wins snap Egyptian referendum amid vote-buying claims". the Guardian. 23 April 2019.
- ^ "Pro-Sisi party wins majority in Egypt's parliamentary polls". Reuters. 14 December 2020.
- ^ a b Situation Report EEPA HORN No. 31 - 20 December Europe External Programme with Africa
Further reading
- Bruton, Henry J. . "Egypt's Development in the Seventies" Economic Development and Cultural Change. 31#4 (1983), pp. 679–704. in JSTOR.
- Baer, Gabriel. Studies in the Social History of Modern Egypt (U Chicago Press, 1969).
- Daly, Martin W. ed. The Cambridge history of Egypt. Vol. 2: Modern Egypt from 1517 to the end of the twentieth century. (1998).
- Goldschmidt Jr., Arthur. Biographical Dictionary of Modern Egypt (1999)
- Karakoç, Ulaş. "Industrial growth in interwar Egypt: first estimate, new insights" European Review of Economic History (2018) 22#1 53–72, online
- Landes, David. Bankers and Pashas: International Finance and Economic Imperialism in Egypt (Harvard UP, 1980).
- Marlowe, John. A History of Modern Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Relations: 1800-1956 (Archon Books, 1965).
- Morewood, Steve. The British Defence of Egypt, 1935-40: Conflict and Crisis in the Eastern Mediterranean (2008).
- Royal Institute of International Affairs. Great Britain and Egypt, 1914-1951 (2nd ed. 1952) also online free[ISBN missing]
- Thornhill, Michael T. "Informal Empire, Independent Egypt and the Accession of King Farouk." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 38#2 (2010): 279–302.
- Tignore, Robert L. Egypt: A Short History (2011)[ISBN missing]
- Vatikiotis, P.J. The History of Modern Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Mubarak (4th ed. 1991)