History of the Arab–Israeli conflict

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The

Palestinian uprisings (intifadas
).

Background

Further information: Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine

Ottoman era

Tensions between the

Arab residents of Palestine started to emerge after the 1880s, when immigration of European Jews to Palestine increased. This immigration increased the Jewish communities in Ottoman Palestine by the acquisition of land from Ottoman and individual Arab landholders, known as effendis, and establishment of Jewish agricultural settlements (kibbutzim). At the time, Arabs lived in an almost feudal existence on the effendis' land.[1] Demographer Justin McCarthy estimated from Ottoman census data that the population of Palestine in 1882–3 was about 468,000, consisting of 408,000 Muslims, 44,000 Christians and 15,000 Jews.[2] By the eve of World War I, these numbers had increased to 602,000 Muslims, 81,000 Christians and 39,000 Jews, plus a similar but uncertain number of Jews who were not Ottoman citizens.[2] The first Statistician General of Israel, Roberto Bachi, give similar numbers except for a lower count (525,000) of Muslims in 1914.[3]

British Mandate (1920–1948)

1918. Emir Faisal and Chaim Weizmann (left, also wearing Arab outfit)

During the time of the

Faisal–Weizmann Agreement promoted Arab-Jewish cooperation on the development of a Jewish national homeland in Palestine and an Arab nation in a large part of the Middle East, though this event had little to no effect on the conflict.[4]

In 1920, the

Hashemite king Abdullah but closely dependent on Britain, leaving the remainder west of the Jordan as the League of Nations Mandatory Palestine. While the British had made promises to give both Arabs and Jews land, the British claimed they had never promised to give either side all of the land. Rising tensions had given way to violence, such as the 1920 Nebi Musa riots, and Jaffa riots of 1921. To assuage the Arabs, and due to British inability to control Arab violence in the Mandatory Palestine any other way, the semi-autonomous Arab Emirate of Transjordan
was created in all Palestinian territory east of the Jordan river (roughly 77% of the mandate).

The conflicting forces of

Haj Amin al-Husseini, led opposition to the idea of turning part of Palestine into a Jewish state.[5]

In search for help in expelling British forces from Palestine, thus removing the enforcer of the Zionist enterprise, the Grand Mufti sought alliance with the

List of Irgun attacks during the 1930s
.

A British Royal Commission of Inquiry that came to be known as the

northern Israel, and surrounding areas. The British were to maintain control over Jaffa, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and surrounding areas. The two main Jewish leaders, Chaim Weizmann and David Ben-Gurion had convinced the Zionist Congress to approve equivocally the Peel recommendations as a basis for more negotiation.[7][8][9][10] The Arabs, however, rejected it while demanding cessation of immigration and land sales to Jewish people.[4] The Arabs' demands prompted the British to stop Jewish immigration, thus preventing refugees from escaping the Holocaust.[11]

Jewish violence against the Mandatory Palestine continued to mount throughout the later half of the 1940s, with attacks by the

Lehi, and the 1946 King David Hotel bombing
.

In 1947, the population was reported as 1,845,000, consisting of 608,000 Jews and 1,237,000 Arabs and others.[12]

War of 1948

Main article: 1948 Arab–Israeli War
The UN Partition Plan offered to both sides of the conflict before the 1948 war. The Jews accepted the plan while the Arabs rejected it.

The

Truman trusteeship proposal.[14] The Jewish leadership rejected this.[15] By now, both Jewish[16] and Arab[17]
militias had begun campaigns to control territory inside and outside the designated borders, and an open war between the two populations emerged.

Arab Higher Committee said, that in the future Palestine, the Jews will be no more than 1/7 of the population. i.e. only Jews that lived in Palestine before the British mandate. They did not specify what will happen to the other Jews.[23] They considered the UN Plan to be invalid because it was opposed by Palestine's Arab majority, and claimed that the British withdrawal led to an absence of legal authority, making it necessary for them to protect Arab lives and property.[24] About two thirds of Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from the territories which came under Jewish control; the rest became Arab citizens of Israel. All of the much smaller number of Jews in the territories captured by the Arabs, for example the Old City of Jerusalem, also fled or were expelled. The official United Nations estimate was that 711,000 Arabs became refugees during the fighting.[25]

May 15 – June 10

The fighting ended with signing of the several

Gaza Strip was occupied by Egypt and the West Bank by Jordan until June 1967 when they were occupied by Israel during the Six-Day War
.

Aftermath of the 1948 war

Main articles:
Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries
Map comparing the borders of the 1947 partition plan and the armistice of 1949.
Boundaries defined in the 1947 UN Partition Plan for Palestine:

  Area assigned for a Jewish state
    Area assigned for an Arab state
    Planned Corpus separatum with the intention that Jerusalem would be neither Jewish nor Arab
Armistice Demarcation Lines of 1949 (Green Line):

      Israeli controlled territory from 1949
    Egyptian and Jordanian controlled territory from 1948 until 1967

The about

United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East was established to alleviate their condition.[4]

After the war, "[t]he Arab states insisted on two main demands", neither of which were accepted by Israel: 1. Israel should withdraw to the borders of the

UN Partition Plan — Israel argued "that the new borders—which could be changed, under consent only—had been established as a result of war, and because the UN blueprint took no account of defense needs and was militarily untenable, there was no going back to that blueprint."[4]
2. The
Palestinian refugees deserved a full right of return to Israel — Israel argued that this was "out of the question, not only because they were hostile to the Jewish state, but they would also fundamentally alter the Jewish character of the state."[4]

Over the next two decades after the 1948 war ended, between

population exchange between Arab nations and the Jewish nation.[4]

For the 19 years from the end of the Mandate until the Six-Day War, Jordan controlled the West Bank and Egypt controlled the Gaza Strip. In 1950, Jordan annexed the West Bank, but this annexation was recognized only by the United Kingdom. Both territories were conquered (but not annexed) from Jordan and Egypt by Israel in the Six-Day War. Neither Jordan nor Egypt allowed the creation of a Palestinian state in these territories. The effect this had on Israel during this period "were frequent border clashes ... terror and sabotage acts by individuals and small groups of Palestinian Arabs."[4]

War of 1956

Main article: Suez Crisis

The 1956 Suez War was a joint Israeli-British-French operation, in which Israel invaded the

nationalize the Suez Canal. Israel justified its invasion of Egypt as an attempt to stop attacks (see the Fedayeen) upon Israeli civilians, and to restore Israeli shipping rights through the Straits of Tiran, which Egypt claimed was within its territorial waters. The invading forces agreed to withdraw under U.S. and international pressure, and Israel withdrew from the Sinai as well, in return for the installation of United Nations Emergency Forces
and guarantees of Israeli freedom of shipment. The canal was left in Egyptian (rather than British and French) hands.

Between 1956 and 1967

This period saw the rise of Nasserism; the founding of the United Arab Republic in 1958 and its collapse in 1961; Syrian plans for the diversion of water from the Jordan River; continued fedayeen raids, mostly from Syria and Jordan, and Israeli reprisals; and the increasing alignment of the Arab states with the Soviet Union, who became their largest arms supplier.

In 1964, the

Palestinian National Charter of 1964 [1] stated: "This Organization does not exercise any territorial sovereignty over the West Bank in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, on the Gaza Strip or in the Himmah Area
."

War of 1967

Main article: Six-Day War

The background from which erupted the Six-Day War was caused by an erroneous information given to Nasser from the Soviet intelligence services that Israel was amassing troops near the Israeli-Syrian border. The state of conflict was also very tense after increased conflicts between Israel and Syria and Israel and Jordan – i.e. the

Samu Incident. On 14 May 1967 Mohamed Fawzi (general) left for Syria for one day tour, verified that the Soviet report was false and reported that there were no Israeli armed forces near the Syrian border.[26] Still, Nasser declared full mobilisation in Egypt as of 14 May 1967, citing the joint defence agreement with Syria.[27][28] The Egyptian further steps were stationing of 100,000 Egyptian troops at the Sinai Peninsula, expulsion of UNEF peacekeeping forces (UNEF II) from the Sinai Peninsula along the border with Israel, and closure of the Straits of Tiran on May 21–22, 1967 (thus "blocking all shipping to and from Eilat ... a casus belli" according to a possible interpretation of international law).[4]
The Israeli army had a potential strength, including the not fully mobilized reserves, of 264,000 troops.

Following the breakdown of international diplomatic efforts to solve the crisis, the fighting in the Six-Day War of 1967 began on 6 June 1967 with surprise Israeli air strikes that destroyed the entire Egyptian air force while it was still on the ground. In spite of Israel's request to Jordan to desist from attacking it, Jordan along with Syria began to shell Israeli targets. In addition, Hussein, reluctant at first, sent ineffective bomber strikes because of Nasser's requests and affirmation of a sound Egyptian victory. Attacks on other Arab air forces took place later in the day as hostilities broke out on other fronts. A subsequent ground invasion into Egyptian territory led to Israel's conquest of the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula. With the rapid and rather unexpected success on the Egyptian front, Israel decided to attack and successfully captured the West Bank from Jordan on June 7, and the Golan Heights from Syria on June 9.

Khartoum Resolution, UN Resolution 242, and peace proposals

The Khartoum Resolution of September 1, 1967, was issued at the conclusion of 1967 Arab League summit convened in the wake of the Six-Day War, in Khartoum, the capital of Sudan.[29] The resolution ended the Arab oil boycott declared during the Six-Day War, and called for the establishment of the Kuwaiti-led Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development.[30] On the conflict with Israel, it said:

"The Arab Heads of State have agreed to unite their political efforts at the international and diplomatic level to eliminate the effects of the aggression and to ensure the withdrawal of the aggressive Israeli forces from the Arab lands which have been occupied since the aggression of June 5. This will be done within the framework of the main principles by which the Arab States abide, namely, no peace with Israel, no recognition of Israel, no negotiations with it, and insistence on the rights of the Palestinian people in their own country."[30]

Israel and some analysts interpreted the "three noes" of the resolution as a firm proof of Arab intransigence.[29] Others noted that the resolution called for Israeli withdrawal to the pre-1967 lines rather than Israel's destruction and understood the "three noes" as meaning that the Arab states must negotiate as a group and not individually.[29]

Following the

Resolution 242 which proposed a peaceful solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict. The resolution was accepted by Israel, Jordan, and Egypt, but rejected by Syria until 1972–73 and the Yom Kippur War. To this day, Resolution 242 remains controversial due to conflicting interpretations over how much territory Israel would be required to withdraw from in order to conform with the resolution. Also, after the Israeli occupation of the West Bank following the war, Palestinian nationalism substantially increased. Armed resistance was encouraged from within the newly occupied territories and from the Arab nations that lost in the war.[4]

United States government his willingness to negotiate.[33]

War of 1967–1970

Main article: War of Attrition

The War of Attrition was a limited war fought between Egypt and Israel from 1967 to 1970. It was initiated by Egypt to damage Israel's morale and economy after its victory in the Six-Day War. The war ended with a ceasefire signed between the countries in 1970 with frontiers at the same place as when the war started.

Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon

Main article: Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon

War of 1973

Main article: Yom Kippur War
When the ceasefire came into effect, Israel had lost ground on the east side of the Suez Canal to Egypt (shown in red) but gained ground west of the canal and in the Golan Heights (shown in gray/brown)

The 1973 Yom Kippur War began when Egypt and Syria launched a surprise joint attack, on the Jewish day of fasting, in the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights. The Egyptians and Syrians advanced during the first 24–48 hours, after which momentum began to swing in Israel's favor. By the second week of the war, the Syrians had been pushed entirely out of the Golan Heights. In the Sinai to the south, the Israelis had struck at the "hinge" between two invading Egyptian armies, crossed the Suez Canal (where the old ceasefire line had been), and cut off an entire Egyptian army just as a United Nations ceasefire came into effect. During this time, the United States airlifted military supplies to Israel while the Soviet Union airlifted military supplies to Egypt.[4]

Israeli troops eventually withdrew from the west of the Canal and the Egyptians kept their positions on a narrow strip on the east allowing them to re-open the Suez Canal and claim victory.[34] According to The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East (ed. Sela, 2002), Israel clearly had the military victory over both Syria and Egypt, but it suffered a large blow to morale as well as substantial human casualties. The outcome of the Yom Kippur War set the stage for "a new phase in Israeli-Egyptian relations" ending ultimately in the signing of the Camp David Accords.[4]

South Lebanon

1978 conflict

Main article: 1978 South Lebanon conflict

Operation Litani was the official name of

UNIFIL
peacekeeping force and a partial Israeli retreat.

1982 Lebanon War

Main article: 1982 Lebanon War

The 1982 Lebanon War began when Israel attacked Lebanon, justified by Israel as an attempt to remove the

Muslim militias (particularly Hezbollah), which fought to end the Israeli occupation
.

1982–2000 conflict

Main article:
South Lebanon conflict (1982–2000)

By 1985, Israel retreated from all but a narrow stretch of Lebanese territory designated by Israel as the

1583, Hezbollah continues to have a military wing
.

Intifada of 1987–1993

Main article: First Intifada

The

prime minister of Israel at the time, "suggested that violence cease, and that elections should be held in the West Bank and Gaza for a political delegation with whom Israel would come to terms regarding the implementation of Palestinian interim self-governing authority in these areas."[4]
These elections however never materialized.

During the

PLO leader Yasser Arafat with Saddam Hussein. They also withdrew their financial support from the Palestinian cause due to PLO support of Saddam Hussein. It was this political environment that allowed for the PLO to begin talks with the United States and Israel. The First Palestinian Intifada ended with the Madrid Conference of 1991 and the signing of the Oslo Accords
by Israel and the PLO in 1993.

Oslo peace process (1993–2000)

Main article: Oslo Accords

In September 1993, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat signed the Declaration of Principles (DOP) which "shaped the principles for a prospective process of the establishment of a five-year interim self-governing authority" in the Palestinian territories.[4] In May 1994, the first stage of the DOP was implemented, Arafat arrived in the Gaza Strip, and financial aid started pouring in from the parts of the Western world and Japan. Unfortunately, "the new trend in Israeli-Palestinian relations also entailed a wave of violence by religious fanatics."[4] In September 1996, after the opening of some ancient tunnels near the Temple Mount, a small wave of violence occurred. This frightened many Israelis into believing that "the new reality created by the Oslo Agreements, namely the presence of an armed police force of approximately 30,000 Palestinians, ... could easily shift from cooperation to hostility."[4]

In October 1998, Arafat and then Israeli Prime Minister

Labor Party (under Ehud Barak) won control of the Knesset. Barak's election campaign was mostly geared toward a lasting peace in the Middle East by further implementation of the Wye Memorandum and the Oslo Accord. Barak won the election and attempted to deliver on his promises in 2000, when he and Arafat met at Camp David. Barak had offered Arafat a Palestinian state in all of the Gaza Strip and most of the West Bank with a capital in East Jerusalem. Arafat rejected the proposal, did not make a counteroffer, and walked away from the negotiating table.[37]

Intifada of 2000

Main article: Second Intifada

The al-Aqsa Intifada, or

suicide bombings committed by Palestinians against Israeli civilians "intensified ... in buses, restaurants, coffee shops, and other public places in Israel."[4] An Israeli human rights group, B'Tselem, estimated the death toll to be 3,396 Palestinians and 994 Israelis,[3] although this number is criticized for not showing the whole picture, and not differentiating between combatants and civilians (suicide bombers, for example, are counted in that death toll).[citation needed
] The Intifada also created "heavy economic losses to both sides" of the conflict.[4]

Arab Peace Initiative of 2002

Main article: Arab Peace Initiative

In 2002,

Palestinian state with its capital in East Jerusalem
in return for fully normalized relations with the whole Arab world. This proposal was the first to receive the unanimous backing of the Arab League.

In response, Israeli Foreign Minister

Netanya suicide attack.[4]

In 2005, the United States Congress acknowledged that Saudi Arabia has been funding to Hamas and other Palestinian insurgency groups.[38]

Israel's Disengagement of 2005

Main article:
Israel's unilateral disengagement plan

In 2005 Israel unilaterally evacuated settlements, and military outposts from the Gaza Strip and the northern West Bank.

The Disengagement Plan was a proposal by Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon, adopted by the government and enacted in August 2005, to remove a permanent Israeli presence from the Gaza Strip and from four Israeli settlements in the northern West Bank. The civilians were evacuated (many forcibly) and the residential buildings demolished after August 15, and the disengagement from the Gaza Strip was completed on 12 September 2005, when the last Israeli soldier left. The military disengagement from the northern West Bank was completed ten days later.

Aftermath

Further information: Iran–Israel proxy conflict

From the election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad as Iranian President, the Islamic Republic of Iran has actively supported numerous Arab organizations opposing Israel and has also actively called for waging war against it. Iran was widely referred as attempting to create a Shi'a Islam dominated axis, including the Syrian Ba'athist government, dominated by Alawites, Lebanon with Hezbollah dominance and making a strategic alliance with Sunni Hamas in Gaza Strip, which lasted until 2012 (terminating due to Shi'a – Sunni discourse in the Syrian civil war). In January 2007, concerns increased among Israel's leaders that President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad of Iran might be planning some sort of nuclear arms buildup, which might be considered for use in opposition to Israel.[39] The Security Council voted to put sanctions on Iran for its pursuit of nuclear technology.[40]

In 2020, the United States brokered a deal for Israel and the

Bahrein, Sudan and Morocco followed and established relations with Israel.[42]

Syria

Further information: Israeli–Syrian ceasefire line incidents during the Syrian civil war

Some Israeli officials asserted in January 2007 that there had been some constructive progress in unpublicized talks with Syria.[43] Syria has repeatedly requested that Israel re-commence peace negotiations with the Syrian government.

Syrian Civil War
.

Lebanon

Further information: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

Israel–Hezbollah conflict of 2006

Main article: 2006 Lebanon War

The 2006 Lebanon War began on 12 July 2006, with an attack by Hezbollah on Israel. Three Israeli soldiers were killed, and two were kidnapped and taken prisoner into

Israeli Defense Forces troops were killed. It marked the beginning of a new wave of clashes between Israel and Hezbollah which saw the Lebanese capital, the sole Lebanese international airport, and much of southern Lebanon attacked by the Israelis, while Hezbollah, bombarded northern Israeli cities, striking as far south as the city of Haifa. The conflict killed more than a thousand people, most of whom were Lebanese civilians and Hezbollah fighters; and displaced 974,184 Lebanese[46] and 300,000–500,000 Israelis.[47][48][49] Fears were growing that the situation could deteriorate further, with the possibility of either Syria or Iran becoming involved.[50] But a ceasefire was signed
, and went into effect 14 August.

2007 rally

In January 2007, thousands gathered in Lebanon in a rally to support Hezbollah, and to celebrate the resignation of Israel's top military commander, Dan Halutz.[51] However, in some Lebanese communities, Hezbollah lost popularity, for opposing Lebanon's national government.[52]

Gaza conflict

Main article: Gaza–Israel conflict

Abbreviated timeline

See also

References

  1. ^ The Jewish National Fund: Land Purchase Methods and Priorities, 1924 – 1939 Archived 2008-05-17 at the Wayback Machine by Kenneth W. Stein. Middle Eastern Studies. April 1984. Volume 20 Number 2, pp. 190–205
  2. ^ a b Justin McCarthy (1988). The Population of Palestine. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 10–19.
  3. ^ Roberto Bachi (1974). The Population of Israel. C.I.C.R.E.D. p. 32.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Sela, Avraham. "Arab-Israeli Conflict." The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. Ed. Avraham Sela. New York: Continuum, 2002. pp. 58–121.
  5. ^ a b "Though attracted to the economic benefits generated by Zionist settlement—an estimated 300,000 Arabs would eventually enter the country from neighboring Arab states—thousands of Palestinian fellaheen ... were displaced by Jewish land purchases while urban workers were marginalized by more technologically skilled Jewish laborers." Oren, Michael B. Power, Faith, and Fantasy: American in the Middle East, 1776 to the Present. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2007. p. 421
  6. ^ Sela, 63.
  7. ^ William Roger Louis, Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization, 2006, p.391
  8. ^ Benny Morris, One state, two states:resolving the Israel/Palestine conflict, 2009, p. 66
  9. ^ Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited, p. 48; p. 11 "while the Zionist movement, after much agonising, accepted the principle of partition and the proposals as a basis for negotiation"; p. 49 "In the end, after bitter debate, the Congress equivocally approved –by a vote of 299 to 160 – the Peel recommendations as a basis for further negotiation."
  10. ^ Eran, Oded. "Arab-Israel Peacemaking." The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. Ed. Avraham Sela. New York: Continuum, 2002.
  11. ^ Oren, Michael B. "Israel’s 1967 Victory Is Something to Celebrate." Archived 2017-06-06 at the Wayback Machine New York Times. 4 June 2017. 5 June 2017.
  12. ^ "Report of UNSCOP, 1947". Archived from the original on 2010-12-18. Retrieved 2007-05-09.
  13. ^ Benny Morris, 1948. A History of the First Arab-Israeli War, Yale University Press, 2008, p.79.
  14. ^ The Avalon Project : United States Proposal for Temporary United Nations Trusteeship for Palestine – Statement by President Truman, March 25, 1948 Archived September 9, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
  15. ^ "Truman Library". Archived from the original on 2007-02-24. Retrieved 2007-02-16.
  16. ^ "A new history lesson in Israel – International Herald Tribune". Archived from the original on 2008-09-25. Retrieved 2008-07-12.
  17. ^ Collins, Larry and Dominique LaPierre. O Jerusalem!. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972. p. 88.
  18. ISBN 90-411-1142-5
    .
  19. ^ "Milestones: 1945–1952." Archived 2013-08-25 at the Wayback Machine Office of the Historian. 13 June 2013.
  20. ^ "War of Independence (1948)." Archived 2013-06-14 at the Wayback Machine Ynetnews. 19 October 2008. 13 June 2013.
  21. ISBN 9781851098415
    .
  22. ^ Cablegram from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States to the Secretary-General of the United Nations May 15, 1948, at Wikisource. Retrieved 22 March 2006.
  23. ^ ["1948 A History of the First Arab-Israeli War,2008, Benny Morris, p. 66]
  24. ^ The Origins and Evolution of the Palestine Problem, PART II, 1947–1977 Archived 2011-05-26 at the Wayback Machine, United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine (UNISPAL), June 20, 1990, ST/SG/SER.F/1
  25. United Nations Conciliation Commission
    , October 23, 1950. (U.N. General Assembly Official Records, 5th Session, Supplement No. 18, Document A/1367/Rev. 1). The Committee believed the estimate to be "as accurate as circumstances permit", and attributed the higher number on relief to, among other things, "duplication of ration cards, addition of persons who have been displaced from area other than Israel-held areas and of persons who, although not displaced, are destitute."
  26. ISBN 978-0-203-96596-2. Archived
    from the original on 1 January 2014. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
  27. ^ Oren 64, 65
  28. ^ Stein, "Fawzi reported to Nasser that: 'There is nothing there. No massing of forces. Nothing.'" p. 266
  29. ^ a b c Tessler, Mark (2009). A History of the Israeli–Palestinian Conflict (2 ed.). Indiana University Press. pp. 409–410.
  30. ^ a b League of Arab States, Khartoum Resolution, 1 September 1967
  31. ^ “The Ceasefire/Standstill Proposal” 19 June 1970, http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.nsf/db942872b9eae454852560f6005a76fb/3e33d676ae43229b85256e60007086fd!OpenDocument Archived 2009-02-10 at the Wayback Machine last visited 2007/6/11
  32. ISBN 978-1-4128-2418-7
    . In dozens of speeches and statements, Nasser posited the equation that any direct peace talks with Israel were tantamount to surrender. His efforts to forestall any movement toward direct negotiations...
  33. ^ “The Camp David Accords: A Case of International Bargaining” Shibley Telhami, Columbia International Affairs Online, http://www.ciaonet.org/casestudy/tes01/index.html, last visited 2007/6/11
  34. UCSD
    – Department of Political Science. 2 March 2005. 26 March 2008. p. 7.
  35. ^ Lewis, Bernard. The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. New York: The Modern Library, 2003. p.62.
  36. ^ Steven J. Rosen (2012). "Kuwait Expels Thousands of Palestinians". Middle East Quarterly. Archived from the original on 2013-05-11. Retrieved 2013-12-30. From March to September 1991, about 200,000 Palestinians were expelled from the emirate in a systematic campaign of terror, violence, and economic pressure while another 200,000 who fled during the Iraqi occupation were denied return.
  37. ^ Goldberg, Jeffrey. Prisoners: A Story of Friendship and Terror. New York: Vintage Books, 2008. p. 253.
  38. ^ Levitt, Matthew and Dennis Ross. "Hamas: Politics, Charity, and Terrorism in the Service of Jihad." Google Books. 11 January 2011.
  39. ^ For Israelis, a new worry: Iran's nuclear intentions Archived 2007-01-23 at the Wayback Machine, John Murphy, Baltimore Sun, 1/19/07
  40. ^ UN passes Iran nuclear sanctions Archived 2007-01-17 at the Wayback Machine, BBC, 12/23/06.
  41. ^ "Israel." World History: The Modern Era, ABC-CLIO, 2020, worldhistory.abc-clio.com/Search/Display/317267. Accessed 23 Aug. 2020.
  42. ^ "Morocco joins other Arab nations agreeing to normalize Israel ties". Reuters. 2021-02-28.
  43. ^ Syrians and Israelis 'held talks' Archived 2007-05-06 at the Wayback Machine, BBC, 1/16/07; Syrian, Israeli backdoor talks now emerging[permanent dead link], Christian Science Monitor, 1/18/07; Why can't they just make peace? Archived 2007-01-22 at the Wayback Machine, Economist, 1/18/07.
  44. ^ (The Times (UK), December 20, 2006, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article758520.ece Archived 2011-05-22 at the Wayback Machine last visited February 26, 2007)
  45. ^ Haaretz, February 24, 2007, Archive index at the Wayback Machine The Times (UK), December 20, 2006, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article758520.ece Archived 2011-05-22 at the Wayback Machine
  46. ^ Lebanon Higher Relief Council (2007). "Lebanon Under Siege" Archived 2006-09-27 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved March 5, 2007.
  47. ^ "Hizbullah attacks northern Israel and Israel's response". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. August 2006. Archived from the original on 2013-03-28. Retrieved 2006-10-02.
  48. ^ "Middle East crisis: Facts and Figures". BBC News. August 31, 2006. Archived from the original on July 19, 2008. Retrieved March 20, 2007.
  49. ^ "Israel says it will relinquish positions to Lebanese army". USA Today. August 15, 2006. Archived from the original on March 10, 2012. Retrieved August 29, 2017.
  50. ^ Cohen, Dudi (25 July 2006). "Iran threatens response if Syria attacked – Israel News, Ynetnews". Ynetnews. Archived from the original on 2007-03-03. Retrieved 2007-02-18.
  51. ^ Thousands gather in Beirut to celebrate Halutz resignation at the Wayback Machine (archive index), Yoav Stern, Haaretz, 1/17/07.
  52. ^ Hezbollah image suffers in south Lebanon village[permanent dead link], Reuters, 1/18/07.

External links

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