History of the horse in Britain
The known history of the horse in Britain starts with
Pleistocene epoch
The earliest horse remains found in the area now covered by Britain and Ireland date to the
Although much of Britain from this time is now beneath the sea, remains have been discovered on land that show horses were present, and being hunted, in this period. Significant finds include a
Horse remains dating to the later part of this period – roughly coinciding with the end of the
Holocene period
The
During the
Horse remains dating from 10,500–8,000 BC have been recovered from Sewell's Cave, Flixton, Seamer Carr, Uxbridge and Thatcham.[14] Remains dating from around 7,000 BC have been found in Gough's Cave in Cheddar.[15]
Although there is an apparent absence of horse remains between 7000 BC and 3500 BC, there is evidence that wild horses remained in Britain after it became an island separate from Europe by about 5,500 BC. Pre-domestication
Domestication in pre-Roman times
Domesticated horses were present in Bronze Age Britain from around 2000 BC.[17] Bronze Age horse trappings including snaffle bits have been found which were used in harnessing horses to vehicles;[18] Bronze Age cart wheels have been found at Flag Fen and Blair Drummond, the latter dating from around 1255–815 BC, though these may have belonged to vehicles pulled by oxen.[19] Early Bronze Age evidence for horses being ridden is lacking, though bareback riding may have involved materials which have not survived or have not been found;[20] but horses were ridden in battle in Britain by the late Bronze Age.[21] Domesticated ponies were on Dartmoor by around 1500 BC.[22]
Excavations of Iron Age sites have recovered horse bones from ritual pits at a temple site near Cambridge,[23] and around twenty Iron Age chariot burials have been found, including one of a woman discovered at Wetwang Slack.[24] The majority of Iron Age chariot burials in Britain are associated with the Arras culture, and in most cases the chariots were dismantled before burial. Exceptions are the Ferrybridge and Newbridge chariots, which are the only ones found to have been buried intact. The Newbridge burial has been radiocarbon dated to 520–370 BC, and the Ferrybridge burial is likely to be of similar date.[25]
Towards the end of the Iron Age, there is much evidence for the use of horses in transport and battle, and for extensive trade between the inhabitants of Britain and other cultures.
Roman Britain to the Norman Conquest
By the time of
A large amount of
One of the earliest records of British horses being recognised for their quality and exported dates from the Roman era; many British horses were taken to Italy to improve native stock.[37] Some of the earliest evidence of horses used for sport in Britain also dates from Roman times, a chariot-racing arena having been discovered at Colchester, in Essex.[38]
From the 5th century, the role of the horse in
There is some evidence that horses were occasionally eaten, perhaps in a hard winter, or ridden until five years of age and then slaughtered for meat;
Horses held religious significance in
Horses appear frequently in accounts concerning miraculous events in the context of
Although there is reference to
Duke William of Normandy shipped horses across the English Channel when he invaded England in 1066, and the outcome of the subsequent Battle of Hastings has been described as "the inevitable victory of stirruped cavalry over helpless infantry".[62] The Battle of Hastings took place in King Harold of England's former earldom, at the centre of his property and connections;[63] but it came less than three weeks after he had taken an army north and defeated Norwegian invaders, under King Harald Hardrada, at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, near York. Harold of England had then been "strong in cavalry".[64] However, that battle had seriously depleted the English king's resources in the south,[65] and, although he re-inforced his army in London on his way to meet the Norman invaders, the force which he brought to the Battle of Hastings was smaller than that which fought at the Battle of Stamford Bridge.[65] No English cavalry was deployed:
[This] was a tactical decision... The [English] troops withstood four Norman cavalry charges before they finally broke and this may well have been due to the deaths of commanders rather than the superiority of the invaders' mounted troops.
— Times Higher Education[60]
Although these mounted troops have been described as cavalry, their weapons and armour were similar to those of foot soldiers, and they did not fight as an organised group in the way that cavalries are normally understood to have done.[66]
Medieval period to the Industrial Age
The improvement of horses for various purposes began in earnest during the Middle Ages. King Alexander I of Scotland (c. 1078 – 1124) imported two horses of Eastern origin into Britain, in the first documented import of oriental horses.[67] King John of England (1199–1216) imported 100 Flemish stallions to continue the improvement of the "great horse" for tournament and breeding.[68] At the coronation of Edward I of England and his queen Eleanor of Castile in 1274, royal and aristocratic guests gave away hundreds of their own horses, to whoever could catch them.[69]
[When King Edward] was sat at his meat king [Alexander III] of Scotland came to do him service ... and a hundred knights with him, horsed and arrayed. And when they were light off their horses, they let their horses go whither they would, and they that could catch them had them to their own behoof. ... [The Earl of Pembroke and the Earl of Warenne each] led a horse by their hand, and a hundred of their knights did the same. And when they were alight off their horses they let them go wherever they would, and they that could take them had them still at their liking.[69]
King Edward III of England (1312 – 1377) imported 50 Spanish stallions, and three "great horses" from France. He was a passionate supporter of hunting, the tournament, and horse racing, in which Spanish horses known as "running horses" were then primarily involved.[70]
Horse ownership was widespread by the 12th century. Both tenant farmers and landlords were involved in the harrowing of land for arable crops in the relatively new
The introduction of the horse-drawn, four-wheeled wagon in Britain, by the early 15th century at the latest,
By the early 16th century, horse teams were beginning to replace ox teams in ploughing work in Britain because of their greater speed, strength and agility, particularly on lighter soils; in heavier soils ox teams retained an advantage, both because they pulled more steadily, albeit more slowly, and because they could work despite being fed by grazing alone. While the horse collar, which allows a horse greater freedom to pull heavy loads, had been used in western Europe by the 10th century, and may be shown in the Bayeux Tapestry of the 11th or 12th century,[76] the use of horse teams in Britain was made possible in part because of an increase in the farming of oats, a staple food for hard-working horses.[77]
During the
During the successive reigns of queens
During the Tudor and Stuart periods, horse ownership was more widespread in Britain than in continental Europe, but it suffered a decline in the harsh economic environment of the late 16th and early 17th centuries.[citation needed] With economic recovery, the number of horse owners increased again. Travel became more popular, along with the hiring of horses, although a common practice at the time was for a traveller to buy a horse for a journey, and then sell it on arrival at his destination.[83] Horses had been raced in Britain for hundreds of years by the time of King James VI of Scotland (1567 – 1625), but he brought the sport as it is known today into England from Scotland while he was king of both countries (1603 – 1625); he organised public races in a number of places, and continued to import quality animals aimed at the development of a new, lighter, faster type of horse.[84]
When
During the reign of
Horse-powered agricultural implements were improved during this period. By 1600, a lighter plough which could be drawn by two horses, the "Dutch plough", was used in eastern England;[citation needed] this was followed in 1730 by the lightweight Rotherham plough, an unwheeled, or "swing" plough. It was advertised as reducing ploughing times by a third, or using a third less horsepower for the same ploughing time. The improved seed drill and horse-hoe were invented by Jethro Tull in 1731; but it took more than 100 years for these designs to come into common use.[92] The earliest horse-powered threshing machines, which were installed permanently in barns, were developed towards the end of the 18th century.[93]
The use of fast horse-drawn coaches, known as 'Flying Coaches', began in 1669. Travelling between London and Oxford by coach had involved an overnight stay at
The Mail coach service began towards the end of the 18th century, adding to the existing use of fast coaches. The horses required for fast coaches were mainly produced by outcrossing heavy farm mares to the lighter racing type of horse, as a combination of speed, agility, endurance and strength was required. While the aristocracy and gentry paid high prices for matched teams of quality horses, farmers sold the best of their animals at a good profit, keeping lower-quality animals for themselves, or for sale as saddle horses.[96] The coaching trade grew from the trade in carriage of goods; some public transport was provided by farmers, who could keep large numbers of horses on their own farms more cheaply than those who had to buy in food and forage. However, proprietors of coaching inns accounted for most of the trade. In many cases a proprietor would work his horse teams only in his local district, but some owned many coaching establishments, and could provide transport over much greater distances. An advantage to proprietors of a string of coaching inns was that passengers on their coaches also used and paid for the services offered by their inns, often including overnight accommodation. Some inn proprietors owned hundreds of horses.[97]
19th and 20th centuries
Horses remained the primary source of power for agriculture, mining, transport and warfare, until the arrival of the
Use of the steam engine also began to make the horse redundant in farm work. In a letter to The Farmer's Magazine in 1849, Alderman Kell of
Horses and ponies began to be used in Britain's mining pits in the 18th century, to haul "tubs" of coal and ore from the working face to the lifts, in deep mines, or to the surface in shallower mines. Many of these ponies were
In the First World War, horses were used in combat for cavalry charges, and they remained the best means for moving scouts, messengers, supply wagons, ambulances, and artillery quickly on the battlefield; the horse could refuel itself to some extent by grazing, and could cope with terrain which was beyond machines of the time.[106] However, this war had a devastating effect on the British horse population. As thousands of animals were drafted for the war effort, some breeds were so reduced in number that they were in danger of disappearing.[109] Many breeds were saved by the dedicated efforts of a few breeders who formed breed societies, tracking down remaining animals and registering them.[110]
21st century
Working horses all but disappeared from Britain's streets by the 21st century; among few exceptions are heavy horses pulling brewers' wagons, or drays. However, when Young's Brewery ceased brewing in Wandsworth, London, in 2006, it ended more than 300 years' use of dray horses by the brewery: its team of Shire horses was retired from delivery work and given a new career with the head horsekeeper, offering heavy horse team driving as a recreational event, although they continue to appear at opening ceremonies for new Young's pubs and other publicity events.[111] There are still working brewery horses in other areas, such as
Notes
- ^ Stuart, Tony (2006)"Exotic world before Suffolk" Archived 19 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine, British Archaeology (86). Retrieved 22 March 2011. Archived page Archived 14 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Roberts, Mark (1996), "'Man the Hunter' returns at Boxgrove", British Archaeology (18). Retrieved 22 March 2011.
- ^ "Huge ice age river carved the English Channel". The Independent. 2009. Retrieved 6&March 2012.
- ^ Wragg Sykes, Rebecca (2009), "Neanderthals In Britain: Late Mousterian Archaeology in Landscape Context" 1, pp. 19, 34. University of Manchester. Retrieved 7 March 2012.
- ^ Bahn, Paul (2003), "Art of the Hunters", British Archaeology (72). Retrieved 7 March 2012.
- ^ Dames, Michael (2005), "Footsteps of the Goddess in Britain and Ireland". Societies of Peace 2nd World Congress on Matriarchal Studies. Retrieved 7 March 2012.
- ^ Pitts, Mike (2010), "news (A moment in the life of an ice age hunter – unique find)", British Archaeology (115). Retrieved 7 March 2012.
- ^ "Mother Grundy's Parlour" Archived 24 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Creswell Crags Museum & Heritage Centre. 2009. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
- ^ Lord et al. 2007, p. 683.
- ^ "International Stratigraphic Chart". International Commission on Stratigraphy. 2010. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
- ^ "Modern Human Evolution – 2008: Lecture 36" (Reconstructing drowned landscapes). University of Sussex. 2008. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
- ^ Field, David (not dated), "Neolithic Geography and La Manche", Kent County Council. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
- ^ Gaffney, Vincent (2008), "Global Warming and the Lost European Country" Archived 10 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Live Better Magazine. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
- ^ Lord et al. 2007, p. 683; Whyman & Howard 2005, p. 13; Bailey & Spikins 2008, p. 145.
- ^ Jacobi, R.M. (1985), "The History and Literature of Pleistocene Discoveries at Gough's Cave, Cheddar, Somerset", Proceedings University of Bristol Spelæological Society 17(2), pp. 102–15. Retrieved 8 March 2012.; Denison, Simon (ed.; 1995), "NEWS (Kill site found of Palaeolithic hunt)", British Archaeology (4). Retrieved 8 March 2012.
- ^ Daniel 1950, p. 173; Hedges, Saville & O'Connell 2008, pp. 116–21; McIntosh 2009, p. 38.
- ^ Ryder 2011, p. 398.
- ^ Harding 2000, pp. 169–71.
- ^ Harding 2000, pp. 165–9.
- ^ Harding 2000, p. 170.
- ^ Osgood, Richard (1999), "Britain in the age of warrior heroes", British Archaeology (46). Retrieved 8 March 2012.
- ^ "The Dartmoor Ponies" Archived 14 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Dartmoor National Park Authority. 2006. Retrieved 8 March 2012.
- ^ Denison, Simon (ed.; 2002), "news (Rare Iron Age temple excavated near Cambridge)", British Archaeology (66). Retrieved 8 March 2012.
- ^ "The Wetwang Chariot Burial". The British Museum. Retrieved 8 March 2012.
- ^ Boyle, Angela (2004), "Riding Into History", British Archaeology (76). Retrieved 8 March 2012.
- ^ Richards, Julian (2011), "Overview: Iron Age, 800 BC – AD 43". BBC History. Retrieved 8 March 2012.
- ^ Tonnochy et al. 1954, p. 18.
- ^ Tyacke 2006, pp. 145–6.
- ^ MacKillop 2004, p. 419.
- ^ Salway 1981, p. 34.
- ^ Myres & Collingwood 1998, p. 49.
- ^ Harding 2004, p. 23.
- ^ Harding 2004, p. 174.
- ^ "Tour of Lancaster Castle and Priory". Council for British Archaeology. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
- ^ Watts 2011, p. 47.
- ^ Watts 2011, p. 60.
- ^ Trew 1953, p. 44.
- ^ Prudames, David (2005), "Roman Chariot-Racing Arena Is First To Be Unearthed In Britain". Culture24. Retrieved 9 March 2012.
- ^ Neville 2006, pp. 140–1.
- ^ a b Finn 1973, p. 66.
- ^ Ekwall 1960, p. 444.
- ^ Backhouse, Turner & Webster 1984, pp. 105–6; Parfitt, K., Brugmann, B. & Rettner, A. (2000), "Anglo-Saxon spur from the Mill Hill, Deal cemetery", Kent Archaeological Review (140), pp. 229–30.
- ^ Neville 2006, p. 155(note); Bede (translated by Leo Sherley-Price, 1968 [1955]), A History of the English Church and People, London: Penguin, pp. 277–8.
- ^ "Anglo-Saxon Charter S 546 Archive Christ Church, Canterbury" Archived 2 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Kemble Anglo-Saxon Charters. Retrieved 27 February 2012.
- ^ Wilson 1981, p. 383.
- ^ a b c Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England Archived 19 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine (search "Factoids" for text "horse"). PASE. 2010. Retrieved 27 February 2012.
- ^ Finn 1973, p. 33.
- ^ Finn 1973, p. 97.
- ^ Bede (translated by Leo Sherley-Price, 1968 [1955]), A History of the English Church and People, London: Penguin, p. 56.
- ^ Simek 2009, p. 139.
- ^ Colgrave 1985, p. 71.
- ^ Colgrave 1985, pp. 159–61.
- ^ Robinson 1916, pp. 92–3.
- ^ Stubbs 1874, pp. 23–5.
- ^ Stubbs 1874, p. 31.
- ^ Morillo 1996, p. 180.
- ^ Magnusson et al. 2008, pp. 99–100.
- ^ a b Campbell, John & Wormald 1982, p. 59.
- ^ "Ancient warrior resurrected". BBC News Online. 1999. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
- ^ a b "Anglo-Saxons fought on foot... and horseback". Times Higher Education. 1999. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
- ^ Morillo 1996, pp. 179–80.
- ^ Morillo 1996, p. 222.
- ^ Campbell, John & Wormald 1982, p. 233.
- ^ Morillo 1996, p. 186.
- ^ a b Morillo 1996, p. 182.
- ^ Morillo 1996, pp. 182–6.
- ^ Wortley Axe 2008, p. 538.
- ^ Wortley Axe 2008, p. 539.
- ^ a b Strickland 2010, p. 96.
- ^ Wortley Axe 2008, p. 540.
- ^ Hallam 2011, p. 336.
- ^ Hallam 2011, p. 409.
- ^ Kennett 2008, pp. 57–8.
- ^ Kennett 2008, p. 59.
- ^ a b c d Brayshay 1992.
- ^ Needham 1965, p. 317.
- ^ Edwards 2004, p. 5.
- ^ Nicolle 2002, p. 22.
- ^ Wortley Axe 2008, pp. 541–542.
- ^ a b c Harrison 1876, Chapter XII.
- ^ "Wool is my bread... (Safety in the wilderness)" Archived 28 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine. The Fell Pony Museum. 2004. Retrieved 10 March 2012.
- ^ Edwards 2004, p. 2.
- ^ Edwards 2004, pp. 8–9.
- ^ Wortley Axe 2008, p. 544.
- ^ Markham 1617, pp. 18–9.
- ^ Thirsk 1990, pp. 45–46.
- ^ Wortley Axe 2008, p. 543.
- ^ Thirsk 1990, p. 308.
- ^ Wortley Axe 2008, p. 545.
- ^ Thirsk 1990, p. 135.
- ^ a b Russell 2007, p. 97.
- ^ Overton 1996, p. 122.
- ^ Overton 1996, p. 125.
- ^ Macaulay 1853, pp. 376–8.
- ^ Russell 2007, pp. 94–103.
- ^ Russell 2007, pp. 60–61.
- ^ Jackman & Chaloner 1966, pp. 315–6.
- ^ Greer Ransom 1990, pp. 14, 25; Blythe 1951, p. 14; "Early Days of Mumbles Railway". BBC. 2007. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
- ^ Greer Ransom 1990, p. 25; Blythe 1951, pp. 16–18.
- ^ Holman 2008, p. 86.
- ^ Aldcroft 1988, pp. 9–20.
- ^ The Farmer's Magazine, 20, 1849, p. 47.
- ^ Chambers & Chambers 1854, pp. 5–6.
- ^ "History of Leather" Archived 16 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Walsall Leather Museum. 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
- ^ "Horses". The Museum of English Rural Life. 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
- ^ a b "1900: The Horse in Transition: The Horse in World War I 1914–1918". International Museum of the Horse. Retrieved 10 March 2012.
- ^ Lynghaug 2009, p. 530.
- ^ Thompson 2008, p. 66.
- ^ Lynghaug 2009, p. 457.
- ^ "The Great All Rounder" Archived 18 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Dales Pony Society. 2009. Retrieved 10 March 2012.
- ^ Young's Annual Report 2007 Archived 26 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Young's. 2007. Retrieved 10 March 2012.
- ^ "Shire Horses" Archived 26 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Wadworth. 2010. Retrieved 10 March 2012.
- ^ Fear 2006, p. 29.
- ^ Jones, Laura (2011), "Far Right Members to Join Luton Protest" Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. chesterfirst. Retrieved 10 March 2012.
- ^ "Equestrian". BBC. 2005. Retrieved 11 March 2012; "Event Guide – Equestrian" Archived 29 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine. sportinglife.com. 2008. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
References
- Aldcroft, Derek H. (1988), The Atlas of British Railway History, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-00896-9
- ISBN 0-7141-0532-5
- Bailey, Geoff; Spikins, Penny (2008), Mesolithic Europe, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85503-7
- Blythe, Richard (1951), Danger Ahead, Newman Neame, OCLC 4413520
- Brayshay, Mark (1992), "Post-Haste by Post Horse?", History Today, 42 (9), ISSN 0018-2753
- Campbell, James; John, Eric; Wormald, Patrick (1982), The Anglo-Saxons, Phaidon, ISBN 978-0-7148-2149-8
- Chambers, William; Chambers, Robert (1854), "Steam Among the Farmers", Chambers's Journal of Popular Literature, Science and Arts, vol. 1, William and Robert Chambers, pp. 4–6, OCLC 5097262
- Colgrave, Bertram (1985) [1940], Two Lives of Saint Cuthbert: A Life by an Anonymous Monk of Lindisfarne and Bede's Prose Life, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-30925-7
- Crabtree, Pam J. (2001), Medieval Archaeology an Encyclopedia, Garland, ISBN 0-8153-1286-5
- Daniel, Glynn Edmund (1950), The Prehistoric Chamber Tombs of England and Wales, Cambridge University Press, OCLC 1593341
- Edwards, Peter (2004), The Horse Trade of Tudor and Stuart England, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-52008-8
- ISBN 978-0-19-869103-7
- Fear, Sally (2006), New Forest Drift: A Photographic Portrait of Life in the National Park, Perspective Photo, ISBN 978-0-9553253-0-4
- Greer Ransom, Philip J. (1990), The Victorian Railway and How it Evolved, Heinemann, ISBN 978-0-434-98083-3
- Hallam, H.E. (2011) [1988], The Agrarian History of England and Wales Volume II 1042–1350, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-20011-0
- Harding, A.F. (2000), European Societies in the Bronze Age, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-36729-5
- Harding, D.W. (2004), The Iron Age in Northern Britain: Celts and Romans, Natives and Invaders, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-30149-1
- Harrison, William (1876) [1577], Elizabethan England, Walter Scott, OCLC 37945789
- Hedges, R.; Saville, A.; O'Connell, T. (2008), "Characterizing the Diet of Individuals at the Neolithic Chambered Tomb of Hazleton North, Gloucestershire, England, Using Stable Isotopic Analysis", Archaeometry, 50 (1): 114–128,
- Holman, Tom (2008), A Yorkshire Miscellany, Frances Lincoln, ISBN 978-0-7112-2865-8
- Jackman, W.T.; Chaloner, W.H. (1966), Development of Transportation in Modern England (3rd ed.), Cass, ISBN 0-7146-1326-6
- Kennett, David H. (2008), "Caistor Castle, Norfolk, and the transport of brick and other building materials in the Middle Ages", in Bork, Robert; Kann, Andrea (eds.), The Art, Science and Technology of Medieval Travel, Ashgate, ISBN 978-0-7546-6307-2
- Lord, T.C.; O'Connor, T.P.; Siebrandt, D.C.; Jacobi, R.M. (2007), "People and large carnivores as biostratinomic agents in Lateglacial cave assemblages", Journal of Quaternary Science, 22 (7): 681–694, S2CID 131225613
- Lynghaug, Fran (2009), The Official Horse Breeds Standards Guide: The Complete Guide to the Standards of All North American Equine Breed Associations, Voyageur, OCLC 308175523
- OCLC 222358716
- MacKillop, James (2004), A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-860967-1
- Magnusson, Magnus; Harrison, Mark; Durham, Keith; Heath, Ian (2008), The Vikings: Voyagers of Discovery and Plunder, Osprey, ISBN 978-1-84603-340-7
- Markham, Gervase (1617), Cavalarice, or the English Horseman, vol. 1, E. White, OCLC 18813278
- McIntosh, Jane (2009), Handbook to Life in Prehistoric Europe, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-538476-5
- Morillo, Stephen (1996), The Battle of Hastings: Sources and Interpretation, Boydell, OCLC 60237653
- ISBN 0-8196-1160-3
- Needham, Joseph (1965), Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2, Physics and Physical Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-05803-1
- Neville, Jennifer (2006), "Hrothgar's horses: feral or thoroughbred?", Anglo-Saxon England, vol. 35, Cambridge University Press, pp. 131–58, ISBN 0-521-88342-3
- ISBN 1-86019-889-9
- Overton, Mark (1996), Agricultural Revolution in England: The transformation of the agrarian economy, 1500–1850, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-56859-5
- Robinson, George W. (1916), The Life of St Boniface by Willibald, Harvard University Press
- Russell, Nicholas (2007), Like Engend'ring Like: Heredity and Animal Breeding in Early Modern England, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-03158-5
- Ryder, M.L. (2011) [1981], "Livestock", in Thirsk, Joan; Finberg, H.P.R.; Piggott, Stuart (eds.), The Agrarian History of England and Wales Volume I.I Prehistory Volume I.II A.D. 43–1042, Cambridge University Press, pp. 301–410, ISBN 978-1-107-40114-3
- Salway, Peter (1981), Roman Britain, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-821717-X
- Simek, Rudolf (2009), Dictionary of Northern Mythology, D. S. Brewer, ISBN 978-0-85991-513-7
- Strickland, Agnes (2010) [1852], Lives of the Queens of England, from the Norman Conquest; With Anecdotes of their Courts, vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-108-01970-5
- Stubbs, William (1874), Memorials of Saint Dunstan, Rolls Series, vol. 63, Longmans, Green, OCLC 1675231(in Latin)
- Thirsk, Joan (1990), Agricultural Change: Policy and Practice 1500–1750, Chapters from the Agrarian history of England and Wales, vol. 3, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-36882-0
- Thompson, Ceri (2008), Harnessed: Colliery Horses in Wales, National Museum, Wales, ISBN 978-0-7200-0591-2
- Tonnochy, A.B.; Brailsford, J.W.; JSTOR 4422462
- Trew, C.G. (1953), The Horse Through the Ages, Methuen, OCLC 314823598
- Tyacke, Anna (2006), "Chariots of fire: symbols and motifs on recent Iron Age metalwork finds in Cornwall" (PDF), Cornish Archaeology, 41–42: 144–148, ISSN 0070-024X, archived from the original(PDF) on 26 November 2012
- Watts, Dorothy (2011), Religion in Late Roman Britain, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-62002-4
- Weigall, Arthur (2008) [1926], Wanderings in Roman Britain, Wolfenden, ISBN 978-1-4437-0228-7
- ISBN 978-0-85033-101-1
- Whyman, Mark; Howard, Andy J. (2005), Hunting Big Game in the Forests (PDF), York Archaeological Trust, ISBN 1-874454-32-9, archived from the original(PDF) on 14 December 2010
- ISBN 0-521-28390-6
- Wortley Axe, J. (2008), The Horse – Its Treatment in Health And Disease, Hewlett Press, ISBN 978-1-4437-7540-3