John Hay
John Hay | |
---|---|
37th United States Secretary of State | |
In office September 30, 1898 – July 1, 1905 | |
President | |
Preceded by | United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom |
In office May 3, 1897 – September 12, 1898 | |
President | William McKinley |
Preceded by | Thomas F. Bayard |
Succeeded by | Joseph Hodges Choate |
12th United States Assistant Secretary of State | |
In office November 1, 1879 – May 3, 1881 | |
President | |
Preceded by | Frederick W. Seward |
Succeeded by | Robert R. Hitt |
Personal details | |
Born | John Milton Hay October 8, 1838 Salem, Indiana, U.S. |
Died | July 1, 1905 Newbury, New Hampshire, U.S. | (aged 66)
Political party | Republican |
Spouse |
Clara Stone (m. 1874) |
Children | 4, including Helen and Adelbert |
Education | Brown University (AB, MA) |
Signature | |
Military service | |
Branch/service | United States Army (Union Army) |
Rank | Brevet Colonel |
Battles/wars | American Civil War |
John Milton Hay (October 8, 1838 – July 1, 1905) was an American statesman and official whose career in government stretched over almost half a century. Beginning as a private secretary and an assistant for Abraham Lincoln, he became a diplomat. He served as United States Secretary of State under Presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt. Hay was also a biographer of Lincoln, and wrote poetry and other literature throughout his life.
Born in
After Lincoln's death, Hay spent several years at diplomatic posts in Europe, then worked for the
Hay served for nearly seven years as Secretary of State under President McKinley and, after
Early life
Family and youth
John Milton Hay was born in Salem, Indiana, on October 8, 1838.[1] He was the third son of Dr. Charles Hay and the former Helen Leonard. Charles Hay, born in Lexington, Kentucky, hated slavery and moved to the North in the early 1830s. A doctor, he practiced in Salem. Helen's father, David Leonard, had moved his family west from Assonet, Massachusetts, in 1818, but died en route to Vincennes, Indiana, and Helen relocated to Salem in 1830 to teach school. They married there in 1831.[2] Charles was not successful in Salem, and moved, with his wife and children, to Warsaw, Illinois, in 1841.[3]
John attended the local schools, and in 1849 his uncle Milton Hay invited John to live at his home in
Student and Lincoln supporter
Hay enrolled at Brown in 1855.[1] Although he enjoyed college life, he did not find it easy: his Western clothing and accent made him stand out; he was not well prepared academically and was often sick. Hay gained a reputation as a star student and became a part of Providence's literary circle that included Sarah Helen Whitman and Nora Perry. He wrote poetry and experimented with hashish.[9] Hay received his Master of Arts degree in 1858, and was, like his grandfather before him, Class Poet.[10] He returned to Illinois. Milton Hay had moved his practice to Springfield, and John became a clerk in his firm, where he could study law.[11]
Milton Hay's firm was one of the most prestigious in Illinois. Lincoln maintained offices next door and was a rising star in the new Republican Party. Hay recalled an early encounter with Lincoln:
He came into the law office where I was reading ... with a copy of Harper's Magazine in hand, containing Senator Douglas's famous article on Popular Sovereignty. [whether residents of each territory could decide on slavery] Lincoln seemed greatly roused by what he had read. Entering the office without a salutation, he said: "This will never do. He puts the moral element out of this question. It won't stay out."[12]
Hay was not a supporter of Lincoln for president until after his nomination in 1860. Hay then made speeches and wrote newspaper articles boosting Lincoln's candidacy. When Nicolay, who had been made Lincoln's private secretary for the campaign, found he needed help with the huge amounts of correspondence, Hay worked full-time for Lincoln for six months.[13]
After Lincoln was elected, Nicolay, who continued as Lincoln's private secretary, recommended that Hay be hired to assist him at the White House. Lincoln is reported to have said, "We can't take all Illinois with us down to Washington" but then "Well, let Hay come".[14] Kushner and Sherrill were dubious about "the story of Lincoln's offhand appointment of Hay" as fitting well into Hay's self-image of never having been an office-seeker, but "poorly into the realities of Springfield politics of the 1860s"—Hay must have expected some reward for handling Lincoln's correspondence for months.[15] Hay biographer John Taliaferro suggests that Lincoln engaged Nicolay and Hay to assist him, rather than more seasoned men, both "out of loyalty and surely because of the competence and compatibility that his two young aides had demonstrated".[16] Historian Joshua Zeitz argues that Lincoln was moved to hire Hay when Milton agreed to pay his nephew's salary for six months.[17]
American Civil War
Secretary to Lincoln
Milton Hay desired that his nephew go to Washington as a qualified attorney, and John Hay was admitted to the bar in Illinois on February 4, 1861.[6] On February 11, he embarked with President-elect Lincoln on a circuitous journey to Washington.[18] By this time, several Southern states had seceded to form the Confederate States of America in reaction to the election of Lincoln, seen as an opponent of slavery.[19] When Lincoln was sworn in on March 4, Hay and Nicolay moved into the White House, sharing a shabby bedroom.[a] As there was only authority for payment of one presidential secretary (Nicolay), Hay was appointed to a post in the Interior Department at $1,600 per year,[b] seconded to service at the White House. They were available to Lincoln 24 hours a day.[15] As Lincoln took no vacations as president and worked seven days a week, often until 11 pm (or later, during crucial battles) the burden on his secretaries was heavy.[20]
Hay and Nicolay divided their responsibilities, Nicolay tending to assist Lincoln in his office and in meetings, while Hay dealt with the correspondence, which was voluminous. Both men tried to shield Lincoln from office-seekers and others who wanted to meet with the President. Unlike the dour Nicolay, Hay, with his charm, escaped much of the hard feelings from those denied Lincoln's presence.
Despite the heavy workload—Hay wrote that he was busy 20 hours a day—he tried to make as normal a life as possible, eating his meals with Nicolay at Willard's Hotel, going to the theater with Abraham and Mary Todd Lincoln, and reading Les Misérables in French. Hay, still in his early 20s, spent time both in barrooms and at cultured get-togethers in the homes of Washington's elite.[25] The two secretaries often clashed with Mary Lincoln, who resorted to various stratagems to get the dilapidated White House restored without depleting Lincoln's salary, which had to cover entertainment and other expenses. Despite the secretaries' objections, Mrs. Lincoln was generally the victor and managed to save almost 70 percent of her husband's salary in his four years in office.[26]
After the death of Lincoln's 11-year-old son
Hay and Nicolay accompanied Lincoln to Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, for the dedication of the cemetery there, where were interred many of those who fell at the Battle of Gettysburg. Although they made much of Lincoln's brief Gettysburg Address in their 1890 multi-volume biography of Lincoln, Hay's diary states "the President, in a firm, free way, with more grace than is his wont, said his half-dozen lines of consecration."[30]
Presidential emissary
Lincoln sent Hay away from the White House on various missions. In August 1861, Hay escorted Mary Lincoln and her children to Long Branch, New Jersey, a resort on the Jersey Shore, both as their caretaker and as a means of giving Hay a much-needed break. The following month, Lincoln sent him to Missouri to deliver a letter to Union General John C. Frémont, who had irritated the President with military blunders and by freeing local slaves without authorization, endangering Lincoln's attempts to keep the border states in the Union.[31]
In April 1863, Lincoln sent Hay to the Union-occupied South Carolina coast to report back on the
In July 1864, New York publisher Horace Greeley sent word to Lincoln that there were Southern peace emissaries in Canada. Lincoln doubted that they actually spoke for Confederate President Jefferson Davis, but had Hay journey to New York to persuade the publisher to go to Niagara Falls, Ontario, to meet with them and bring them to Washington. Greeley reported to Lincoln that the emissaries lacked accreditation by Davis, but were confident they could bring both sides together. Lincoln sent Hay to Ontario with what became known as the Niagara Manifesto: that if the South laid down its arms, freed the slaves, and reentered the Union, it could expect liberal terms on other points. The Southerners refused to come to Washington to negotiate.[35]
Assassination of Lincoln
By the end of 1864, with Lincoln reelected and the victorious war winding down, both Hay and Nicolay let it be known that they desired different jobs. Soon after
Hay did not accompany the Lincolns to Ford's Theatre on the night of April 14, 1865, but remained at the White House, drinking whiskey with Robert Lincoln. When the two were informed that the President had been shot, they hastened to the Petersen House, a boarding house where the stricken Lincoln had been taken. Hay remained by Lincoln's deathbed through the night[38] and was present when he died. At the moment of Lincoln's death, Hay observed "a look of unspeakable peace came upon his worn features".[39] He heard War Secretary Edwin Stanton's declaration, "Now he belongs to the ages."[40]
According to Kushner and Sherrill, "Lincoln's death was for Hay a personal loss, like the loss of a father ... Lincoln's assassination erased any remaining doubts Hay had about Lincoln's greatness."[36] In 1866, in a personal letter, Hay deemed Lincoln, "the greatest character since Christ".[28] Taliaferro noted that "Hay would spend the rest of his life mourning Lincoln ... wherever Hay went and whatever he did, Lincoln would always be watching".[41]
Early diplomatic career
Hay sailed for Paris at the end of June 1865.[42] There, he served under U.S. Minister to France John Bigelow.[43] The workload was not heavy, and Hay found time to enjoy the pleasures of Paris.[44] When Bigelow resigned in mid-1866,[45] Hay, as was customary, submitted his resignation, though he was asked to remain until Bigelow's successor was in place, and stayed until January 1867. He consulted with Secretary of State Seward, asking him for "anything worth having".[36] Seward suggested the post of Minister to Sweden, but reckoned without the new president, Andrew Johnson, who had his own candidate. Seward offered Hay a job as his private secretary, but Hay declined, and returned home to Warsaw, Illinois.[46]
Initially happy to be home, Hay quickly grew restive,[47] and he was glad to hear, in early June 1867, that he had been appointed secretary of legation to act as chargé d'affaires at Vienna. He sailed for Europe the same month, and while in England visited the House of Commons, where he was greatly impressed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli.[48] The Vienna post was only temporary, until Johnson could appoint a chargé d'affaires and have him confirmed by the Senate, and the workload was light, allowing Hay, who was fluent in German, to spend much of his time traveling.[49] It was not until July 1868 that Henry Watts became Hay's replacement. Hay resigned, spent the remainder of the summer in Europe, then went home to Warsaw.[50]
Unemployed again, in December 1868 Hay journeyed to the capital, writing to Nicolay that he "came to Washington in the peaceful pursuit of a fat office. But there is nothing just now available".
Although the salary was low, Hay was interested in serving in Madrid both because of the political situation there—Queen Isabella II had recently been deposed—and because the U.S. Minister was the swashbuckling former congressman, General Daniel Sickles. Hay hoped to assist Sickles in gaining U.S. control over Cuba, then a Spanish colony. Sickles was unsuccessful[54] and Hay resigned in May 1870, citing the low salary, but remaining in his post until September.[51] Two legacies of Hay's time in Madrid were magazine articles he wrote that became the basis of his first book, Castilian Days, and his lifelong friendship with Sickles's personal secretary, Alvey A. Adee, who would be a close aide to Hay at the State Department.[55]
Wilderness years (1870–1897)
Tribune and marriage
While still in Spain, Hay had been offered the position of assistant editor at the New-York Tribune—both the editor, Horace Greeley, and his managing editor, Whitelaw Reid, were anxious to hire Hay. He joined the staff in October 1870. The Tribune was the leading reform newspaper in New York,[56] and through mail subscriptions, the largest-circulating newspaper in the nation.[57] Hay wrote editorials for the Tribune, and Greeley soon proclaimed him the most brilliant writer of "breviers" (as such editorials were called) that he had ever had.[58]
With his success as an editorial writer, Hay's duties expanded. In October 1871, he journeyed to Chicago after the great fire there, interviewing Mrs. O'Leary, whose cow was said to have started the blaze, describing her as "a woman with a lamp [who went] to the barn behind the house, to milk the cow with the crumpled temper, that kicked the lamp, that spilled the kerosene, that fired the straw that burned Chicago".[59] His work at the Tribune came as his fame as a poet was reaching its peak, and one colleague described it as "a liberal education in the delights of intellectual life to sit in intimate companionship with John Hay and watch the play of that well-stored and brilliant mind".[60] In addition to writing, Hay was signed by the prestigious Boston Lyceum Bureau, whose clients included Mark Twain and Susan B. Anthony, to give lectures on the prospects for democracy in Europe, and on his years in the Lincoln White House.[61]
By the time President Grant ran for reelection in 1872, Grant's administration had been rocked by scandal, and some disaffected members of his party formed the Liberal Republicans, naming Greeley as their candidate for president,[62] a nomination soon joined in by the Democrats. Hay was unenthusiastic about the editor-turned-candidate, and in his editorials mostly took aim at Grant, who, despite the scandals, remained untarred, and who won a landslide victory in the election. Greeley died only weeks later, a broken man. Hay's stance endangered his hitherto sterling credentials in the Republican Party.[63]
By 1873, Hay was wooing Clara Stone, daughter of Cleveland multimillionaire railroad and banking mogul
On December 29, 1876, a bridge over Ohio's Ashtabula River collapsed. The bridge had been built from metal cast at one of Stone's mills, and was carrying a train owned and operated by Stone's Lake Shore and Michigan Railway. Ninety-two people died; it was the worst rail disaster in American history up to that point. Blame fell heavily on Stone, who departed for Europe to recuperate and left Hay in charge of his businesses.[69] The summer of 1877 was marked by labor disputes; a strike over wage cuts on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad soon spread to the Lake Shore, much to Hay's outrage. He blamed foreign agitators for the dispute, and vented his anger over the strike in his only novel, The Bread-Winners (1883).[70]
Return to politics
Hay remained disaffected from the Republican Party in the mid-1870s. Seeking a candidate of either party he could support as a reformer, he watched as his favored Democrat,
From May to October 1879, Hay set out to reconfirm his credentials as a loyal Republican, giving speeches in support of candidates and attacking the Democrats. In October, President and
In Washington, Hay oversaw a staff of eighty employees, renewed his acquaintance with his friend Henry Adams, and substituted for Evarts at Cabinet meetings when the Secretary was out of town.[76] In 1880, he campaigned for the Republican nominee for president, his fellow Ohioan, Congressman James A. Garfield.[77] Hay felt that Garfield did not have enough backbone, and hoped that Reid and others would "inoculate him with the gall which I fear he lacks".[78] Garfield consulted Hay before and after his election as president on appointments and other matters, but offered Hay only the post of private secretary (though he promised to increase its pay and power), and Hay declined.[79] Hay resigned as assistant secretary effective March 31, 1881, and spent the next seven months as acting editor of the Tribune during Reid's extended absence in Europe. Garfield's death in September and Reid's return the following month left Hay again on the outside of political power, looking in. He would spend the next fifteen years in that position.[80]
Wealthy traveler (1881–1897)
Author and dilettante
After 1881, Hay did not again hold public office until 1897.[80] Amasa Stone committed suicide in 1883; his death left the Hays very wealthy.[81] They spent several months in most years traveling in Europe.[81] The Lincoln biography absorbed some of Hay's time, the hardest work being done with Nicolay in 1884 and 1885; beginning in 1886, portions began appearing serially, and the ten-volume biography was published in 1890.[82]
In 1884, Hay and Adams commissioned architect
Hay continued to devote much of his energy to Republican politics. In 1884, he supported Blaine for president, donating considerable sums to the senator's unsuccessful campaign against New York Governor
McKinley backer
Hay was an early supporter of Ohio's William McKinley and worked closely with McKinley's political manager, Cleveland industrialist Mark Hanna. In 1889, Hay supported McKinley in his unsuccessful effort to become Speaker of the House.[92] Four years later, McKinley—by then Governor of Ohio—faced a crisis when a friend whose notes he had imprudently co-signed went bankrupt during the Panic of 1893. The debts were beyond the governor's means to pay, and the possibility of insolvency threatened McKinley's promising political career. Hay was among those Hanna called upon to contribute, buying up $3,000 of the debt of over $100,000. Although others paid more, "Hay's checks were two of the first, and his touch was more personal, a kindness McKinley never forgot". The governor wrote, "How can I ever repay you & other dear friends?"[93]
The same panic that nearly ruined McKinley convinced Hay that men like himself must take office to save the country from disaster. By the end of 1894, he was deeply involved in efforts to lay the groundwork for
Hay spent part of the spring and early summer of 1896 in the United Kingdom, and elsewhere in Europe. There was a border dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana, and Cleveland's Secretary of State, Richard Olney, supported the Venezuelan position, announcing the Olney interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine. Hay told British politicians that McKinley, if elected, would be unlikely to change course. McKinley was nominated in June 1896; still, many Britons were minded to support whoever became the Democratic candidate. This changed when the 1896 Democratic National Convention nominated former Nebraska congressman William Jennings Bryan on a "free silver" platform; he had electrified the delegates with his Cross of Gold speech. Hay reported to McKinley when he returned to Britain after a brief stay on the Continent during which Bryan was nominated in Chicago: "they were all scared out of their wits for fear Bryan would be elected, and very polite in their references to you."[97][98]
Once Hay returned to the United States in early August, he went to The Fells and watched from afar as Bryan
I had been dreading it for a month, thinking it would be like talking in a boiler factory. But he met me at the [railroad] station, gave me meat & took me upstairs and talked for two hours as calmly & serenely as if we were summer boarders in Bethlehem, at a loss for means to kill time. I was more struck than ever with his mask. It is a genuine Italian ecclesiastical face of the XVth Century.[100]
Hay was disgusted by Bryan's speeches, writing in language that Taliaferro compares to The Bread-Winners that the Democrat "simply reiterates the unquestioned truths that every man with a clean shirt is a thief and ought to be hanged: that there is no goodness and wisdom except among the illiterate & criminal classes".[100] Despite Bryan's strenuous efforts, McKinley won the election easily, with a campaign run by himself and Hanna, and well-financed by supporters like Hay.[100] Henry Adams later wondered, "I would give sixpence to know how much Hay paid for McKinley. His politics must have cost."[101]
Ambassador
Appointment
In the post-election speculation as to who would be given office under McKinley, Hay's name figured prominently, as did that of Whitelaw Reid; both men sought high office in the State Department, either as secretary or one of the major ambassadorial posts. Reid, in addition to his vice-presidential run, had been Minister to France under Harrison. An asthmatic, he handicapped himself by departing for Arizona Territory for the winter, leading to speculation about his health.[102]
Hay was faster than Reid to realize that the race for these posts would be affected by Hanna's desire to be senator from Ohio, as with one of the state's places about to be occupied by the newly elected
According to Taliaferro, "only after the deed was accomplished and Hay was installed as the ambassador to the Court of St. James's would it be possible to detect just how subtly and completely he had finessed his ally and friend, Whitelaw Reid".[104] A telegraph from Hay to McKinley in the latter's papers, dated December 26 (most likely 1896) reveals the former's suggestion that McKinley tell Reid that the editor's friends had insisted that Reid not endanger his health through office, especially in London's smoggy climes. The following month, in a letter, Hay set forth his own case for the ambassadorship, and urged McKinley to act quickly, as suitable accommodations in London would be difficult to secure. Hay gained his object (as did Hanna), and shifted his focus to appeasing Reid. Taliaferro states that Reid never blamed Hay,[105] but Kushner and Sherrill recorded, "Reid was certain that he had been wronged" by Hay, and the announcement of Hay's appointment nearly ended their 26-year friendship.[106]
Reaction in Britain to Hay's appointment was generally positive, with George Smalley of The Times writing to him, "we want a man who is a true American yet not anti-English".[107] Hay secured a Georgian house on Carlton House Terrace, overlooking Horse Guards Parade, with 11 servants. He brought with him Clara, their own silver, two carriages, and five horses. Hay's salary of $17,000[108] "did not even begin to cover the cost of their extravagant lifestyle".[103]
Service
During his service as ambassador, Hay attempted to advance the relationship between the U.S. and Britain. The United Kingdom had long been seen negatively by many Americans, a legacy of its role during the
An ongoing dispute between the U.S. and Britain was over the practice of pelagic sealing, that is, the capture of seals offshore of Alaska. The U.S. considered them American resources; the Canadians (Britain was still responsible for that dominion's foreign policy) contended that the mammals were being taken on the high seas, free to all. Soon after Hay's arrival, McKinley sent former Secretary of State
Hay had little involvement in the crisis over Cuba that culminated in the
In its early days, Hay described the war "as necessary as it is righteous".[118] In July, writing to former Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt, who had gained wartime glory by leading the Rough Riders volunteer regiment, Hay made a description of the war[119] for which, according to Zeitz, he "is best remembered by many students of American history":[120]
It has been a splendid little war, begun with the highest motives, carried on with magnificent intelligence and spirit, favored by that Fortune that loves the brave. It is now to be concluded, I hope, with that fine good nature, which is, after all, the distinguishing trait of the American character.[119]
Secretary Sherman had resigned on the eve of war, and been replaced by his first assistant, William R. Day. One of McKinley's Canton cronies, with little experience of statecraft, Day was never intended as more than a temporary wartime replacement.[121] With America about to splash her flag across the Pacific, McKinley needed a secretary with stronger credentials.[122] On August 14, 1898, Hay received a telegram from McKinley that Day would head the American delegation to the peace talks with Spain, and that Hay would be the new Secretary of State. After some indecision, Hay, who did not think he could decline and still remain as ambassador, accepted. British response to Hay's promotion was generally positive, and Queen Victoria, after he took formal leave of her at Osborne House, invited him again the following day, and subsequently pronounced him, "the most interesting of all the Ambassadors I have known."[123]
Secretary of State
McKinley years
John Hay was sworn in as Secretary of State on September 30, 1898. He needed little introduction to Cabinet meetings, and sat at the President's right hand. Meetings were held in the Cabinet Room of the White House, where he found his old office and bedroom each occupied by several clerks. Now responsible for 1,300 federal employees, he leaned heavily for administrative help on his old friend Alvey Adee, the second assistant.[124]
Hay believed that America's most valuable foreign relationship "by far" was its relationship with Great Britain. As Secretary of State he did everything he could to cultivate a positive relationship with London.[125] Eventually this proved successful, one example of this success being the Hay–Pauncefote Treaty. Hay formed a habit of confiding in the British, and sharing sensitive intelligence with them, while at the same time shutting out the governments of Spain, France, Germany and Russia. Senator Mark Hanna remarked that "Hay and McKinley are outrageously pro-British."[126] The French ambassador remarked that "Hay is friendly to the British and unfriendly to us, we should regard him with much suspicion."[127]
By the time Hay took office, the war was effectively over and it had been decided to strip Spain of her overseas empire and transfer at least part of it to the United States.[128] At the time of Hay's swearing-in, McKinley was still undecided whether to take the Philippines, but in October finally decided to do so, and Hay sent instructions to Day and the other peace commissioners to insist on it. Spain yielded, and the result was the Treaty of Paris, narrowly ratified by the Senate in February 1899 over the objections of anti-imperialists.[129]
Open Door Policy
By the 1890s, China had become a major trading partner for Western nations and newly westernized Japan. China had had its army severely weakened by several disastrous wars, and several foreign nations took the opportunity to negotiate treaties with China that allowed them to control various coastal cities-known as treaty ports-for use as military bases or trading centers. Within those jurisdictions, the nation in possession often gave preference to its own citizens in trade or in developing infrastructure such as railroads. Although the United States did not claim any parts of China, a third of the China trade was carried in American ships, and having an outpost near there was a major factor in deciding to retain the former Spanish colony of the Philippines in the Treaty of Paris.[130][131]
Hay had been concerned about the Far East since the 1870s. As Ambassador, he had attempted to forge a common policy with the British, but the United Kingdom was willing to acquire territorial concessions in China (such as Hong Kong) to guard its interests there, whereas McKinley was not. In March 1898, Hay warned that Russia, Germany, and France were seeking to exclude Britain and America from the China trade, but he was disregarded by Sherman, who accepted assurances to the contrary from Russia and Germany.[131]
McKinley was of the view that equality of opportunity for American trade in China was key to success there, rather than colonial acquisitions; that Hay shared these views was one reason for his appointment as Secretary of State.[132] Many influential Americans, seeing coastal China being divided into spheres of influence, urged McKinley to join in; still, in his annual message to Congress in December 1898, he stated that as long as Americans were not discriminated against, he saw no need for the United States to become "an actor in the scene".[133]
As Secretary of State, it was Hay's responsibility to put together a workable China policy. He was advised by William Rockhill, an old China hand.[134] Also influential was Lord Charles Beresford, a British Member of Parliament who gave a number of speeches to American businessmen, met with McKinley and Hay, and in a letter to the secretary stated that "it is imperative for American interests as well as our own that the policy of the 'open door' should be maintained".[135] Assuring that all would play on an even playing field in China would give the foreign powers little incentive to dismember the Chinese Empire through territorial acquisition.[136]
In mid-1899, the British inspector of Chinese maritime customs, Alfred Hippisley, visited the United States. In a letter to Rockhill, a friend, he urged that the United States and other powers agree to uniform Chinese tariffs, including in the enclaves. Rockhill passed the letter on to Hay,[136] and subsequently summarized the thinking of Hippisley and others, that there should be "an open market through China for our trade on terms of equality with all other foreigners".[137] Hay was in agreement, but feared Senate and popular opposition, and wanted to avoid Senate ratification of a treaty.[138] Rockhill drafted the first Open Door note, calling for equality of commercial opportunity for foreigners in China.[139]
Hay formally issued his Open Door note on September 6, 1899. This was not a treaty, and did not require the approval of the Senate. Most of the powers had at least some caveats, and negotiations continued through the remainder of the year. On March 20, 1900, Hay announced that all powers had agreed, and he was not contradicted. Former secretary Day wrote to Hay, congratulating him, "moving at the right time and in the right manner, you have secured a diplomatic triumph in the 'open door' in China of the first importance to your country".[140]
Boxer Rebellion
Little thought was given to the Chinese reaction to the Open Door note; the Chinese minister in Washington,
As American troops were sent to China to relieve the nation's legation, Hay sent a letter to foreign powers (often called the Second Open Door note), stating while the United States wanted to see lives preserved and the guilty punished, it intended that China not be dismembered. Hay issued this on July 3, 1900, suspecting that the powers were quietly making private arrangements to divide up China. Communication between the foreign legations and the outside world had been cut off, and the personnel there were falsely presumed slaughtered, but Hay realized that Minister Wu could get a message in, and Hay was able to establish communication. Hay suggested to the Chinese government that it now cooperate for its own good. When the foreign relief force, principally Japanese but including 2,000 Americans, relieved the legations and sacked Peking, China was made to pay a huge indemnity but there was no cession of land.[143][144]
Death of McKinley
McKinley's vice president, Garret Hobart, had died in November 1899. Under the laws then in force, this made Hay next in line to the presidency should anything happen to McKinley. There was a presidential election in 1900, and McKinley was unanimously renominated at the Republican National Convention that year. He allowed the convention to make its own choice of running mate, and it selected Roosevelt, by then governor of New York. Senator Hanna bitterly opposed that choice, but nevertheless raised millions for the McKinley/Roosevelt ticket, which was elected.[145]
Hay accompanied McKinley on his nationwide train tour in mid-1901, during which both men visited California and saw the Pacific Ocean for the only times in their lives.
Secretary Hay was at The Fells when McKinley
Theodore Roosevelt administration
Staying on
Hay, again next in line to the presidency, remained in Washington as McKinley's body was transported to the capital by funeral train, and stayed there as the late president was taken to Canton for interment.[152] He had admired McKinley, describing him as "awfully like Lincoln in many respects"[153] and wrote to a friend, "what a strange and tragic fate it has been of mine—to stand by the bier of three of my dearest friends, Lincoln, Garfield, and McKinley, three of the gentlest of men, all risen to be head of the State, and all done to death by assassins".[154]
By letter, Hay offered his resignation to Roosevelt while the new president was still in Buffalo, amid newspaper speculation that Hay would be replaced.[155] When Hay met the funeral train in Washington, Roosevelt greeted him at the station and immediately told him he must stay on as secretary.[156] According to Zeitz, "Roosevelt's accidental ascendance to the presidency made John Hay an essential anachronism ... the wise elder statesman and senior member of the cabinet, he was indispensable to TR, who even today remains the youngest president ever".[157]
The deaths of his son and of McKinley were not the only griefs Hay suffered in 1901—on September 26, John Nicolay died after a long illness, as did Hay's close friend Clarence King on Christmas Eve.[158]
Panama
Hay's involvement in the efforts to have a canal joining the oceans in Central America went back to his time as Assistant Secretary of State under Hayes, when he served as translator for Ferdinand de Lesseps in his efforts to interest the American government in investing in his canal company. President Hayes was only interested in the idea of a canal under American control, which de Lesseps's project would not be.[159] By the time Hay became Secretary of State, de Lesseps's project in Panama (then a Colombian province) had collapsed, as had an American-run project in Nicaragua.[160] The 1850 Clayton–Bulwer Treaty (between the United States and Britain) forbade the United States from building a Central American canal that it exclusively controlled, and Hay, from early in his tenure, sought the removal of this restriction. But the Canadians, for whose foreign policy Britain was still available, saw the canal matter as their greatest leverage to get other disputes resolved in their favor, persuaded Salisbury not to resolve it independently. Shortly before Hay took office, Britain and the U.S. agreed to establish a Joint High Commission to adjudicate unsettled matters, which met in late 1898 but made slow progress, especially on the Canada-Alaska boundary.[161][162]
The Alaska issue became less contentious in August 1899 when the Canadians accepted a provisional boundary pending final settlement.
Despite the lack of agreement, Congress was enthusiastic about a canal, and was inclined to move forward, with or without a treaty. Authorizing legislation was slowed by discussion on whether to take the Nicaraguan or Panamanian route.[166] Much of the negotiation of a revised treaty, allowing the U.S. to fortify the canal, took place between Hay's replacement in London, Joseph H. Choate, and the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Lansdowne, and the second Hay–Pauncefote Treaty was ratified by the Senate by a large margin on December 6, 1901.[167]
Seeing that the Americans were likely to build a Nicaragua Canal, the owners of the defunct French company, including
Roosevelt was minded to build the canal anyway, using an earlier treaty with Colombia that gave the U.S. transit rights in regard to the
Relationship with Roosevelt, other events
Hay had met the President's father,
As President and Secretary of State, the two men took pains to cultivate a cordial relationship. Roosevelt read all ten volumes of the Lincoln biography[157] and in mid-1903, wrote to Hay that by then "I have had a chance to know far more fully what a really great Secretary of State you are".[171] Hay for his part publicly praised Roosevelt as "young, gallant, able, [and] brilliant", words that Roosevelt wrote that he hoped would be engraved on his tombstone.[157]
Privately, and in correspondence with others, they were less generous: Hay grumbled that while McKinley would give him his full attention, Roosevelt was always busy with others, and it would be "an hour's wait for a minute's talk".[157] Roosevelt, after Hay's death in 1905, wrote to Senator Lodge that Hay had not been "a great Secretary of State ... under me he accomplished little ... his usefulness to me was almost exclusively the usefulness of a fine figurehead".[176] Nevertheless, when Roosevelt successfully sought election in his own right in 1904, he persuaded the aging and infirm Hay to campaign for him, and Hay gave a speech linking the administration's policies with those of Lincoln: "there is not a principle avowed by the Republican party to-day which is out of harmony with his [Lincoln's] teaching or inconsistent with his character."[177] Kushner and Sherrill suggested that the differences between Hay and Roosevelt were more style than ideological substance.[178]
In December 1902, the German government asked Roosevelt to arbitrate its dispute with Venezuela over unpaid debts. Hay did not think this appropriate, as Venezuela also owed the U.S. money, and quickly arranged for the International Court of Arbitration in The Hague to step in. Hay supposedly said, as final details were being worked out, "I have it all arranged. If Teddy will keep his mouth shut until tomorrow noon!"[179] Hay and Roosevelt also differed over the composition of the Joint High Commission that was to settle the Alaska boundary dispute. The commission was to be composed of "impartial jurists" and the British and Canadians duly appointed notable judges. Roosevelt appointed politicians, including Secretary Root and Senator Lodge. Although Hay was supportive of the President's choices in public, in private he protested loudly to Roosevelt, complained by letter to his friends, and offered his resignation. Roosevelt declined it, but the incident confirmed him in his belief that Hay was too much of an Anglophile to be trusted where Britain was concerned. The American position on the boundary dispute was imposed on Canada by a 4–2 vote, with the one English judge joining the three Americans.[179]
One incident involving Hay that benefitted Roosevelt politically was the kidnapping of Greek-American playboy
We want Perdicaris alive or Raisuli dead. We desire least possible complications with Morocco or other Powers. You will not arrange for landing marines or seizing customs house without specific direction from the [State] department.[180][181]
The 1904 Republican National Convention was in session, and the Speaker of the House, Joseph Cannon, its chair, read the first sentence of the cable—and only the first sentence—to the convention, electrifying what had been a humdrum coronation of Roosevelt.[e][182] "The results were perfect. This was the fighting Teddy that America loved, and his frenzied supporters—and American chauvinists everywhere—roared in delight."[181] In fact, by then the sultan had already agreed to the demands, and Perdicaris was released. What was seen as tough talk boosted Roosevelt's election chances.[182]
Final months and death
Hay never fully recovered from the death of his son Adelbert, writing in 1904 to his close friend Lizzie Cameron that "the death of our boy made my wife and me old, at once and for the rest of our lives".[183] Gale described Hay in his final years as a "saddened, slowly dying old man".[184]
Although Hay gave speeches in support of Roosevelt, he spent much of the fall of 1904 at his New Hampshire house or with his younger brother Charles, who was ill in Boston. After the election, Roosevelt asked Hay to remain another four years. Hay asked for time to consider, but the President did not allow it, announcing to the press two days later that Hay would stay at his post. Early 1905 saw futility for Hay, as a number of treaties he had negotiated were defeated or amended by the Senate—one involving the British dominion of
By
After the course of treatment, Hay went to Paris and began to take on his workload again by meeting with the French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé. In London, King Edward VII broke protocol by meeting with Hay in a small drawing room, and Hay lunched with Whitelaw Reid, ambassador in London at last. There was not time to see all who wished to see Hay on what he knew was his final visit.[190]
On his return to the United States, despite his family's desire to take him to New Hampshire, the secretary went to Washington to deal with departmental business and "say
Literary career
Early works
Hay wrote some poetry while at Brown University, and more during the Civil War.
In poetry, he sought the revolutionary outcome for other nations that he believed had come to a successful conclusion in the United States. His 1871 poem, "The Prayer of the Romans", recites Italian history up to that time, with the
And this was all the religion he had—
To treat his engine well,
Never be passed on the river
And mind the pilot's bell.
And if ever the Prairie Belle took fire,—
A hundred times he swore,
He'd hold her nozzle agin the bank
Till the last soul got ashore.
John Hay, "Jim Bludso" (1871)[202]
Pike County Ballads, a grouping of six poems published (with other Hay poetry) as a book in 1871,[203] brought him great success. Written in the dialect of Pike County, Illinois, where Hay went to school as a child, they are approximately contemporaneous with pioneering poems in similar dialect by Bret Harte and there has been debate as to which came first.[204] The poem that brought the greatest immediate reaction was "Jim Bludso", about a boatman who is "no saint" with one wife in Mississippi and another in Illinois.[205] Yet, when his steamboat catches fire, "He saw his duty, a dead-sure thing,—/And went for it, ther and then."[206] Jim holds the burning steamboat against the riverbank until the last passenger gets ashore, at the cost of his life. Hay's narrator states that, "And Christ ain't a-going to be too hard/On a man that died for men." Hay's poem offended some clergymen, but was widely reprinted and even included in anthologies of verse.[207]
The Bread-Winners
The Bread-Winners, one of the first novels to take an anti-labor perspective, was published anonymously in 1883 (published editions did not bear Hay's name until 1916) and he may have tried to disguise his writing style.[208] The book examines two conflicts: between capital and labor, and between the nouveau riche and old money. In writing it, Hay was influenced by the labor unrest of the 1870s, that affected him personally, as corporations belonging to Stone, his father-in-law, were among those struck,[209] at a time when Hay had been left in charge in Stone's absence. According to historian Scott Dalrymple, "in response, Hay proceeded to write an indictment of organized labor so scathing, so vehement, that he dared not attach his name to it."[210]
The major character is Arthur Farnham, a wealthy Civil War veteran, likely based on Hay.
Although unusual among the many books inspired by the labor unrest of the late 1870s in taking the perspective of the wealthy, it was the most successful of them, and was a sensation, gaining many favorable reviews.[213] It was also attacked as an anti-labor polemic with an upper-class bias.[214] There were many guesses as to authorship, with the supposed authors ranging from Hay's friend Henry Adams to New York Governor Grover Cleveland, and the speculation fueled sales.[210]
Lincoln biography
Early in his presidency, Hay and Nicolay requested and received permission from Lincoln to write his biography.[15] By 1872, Hay was "convinced that we ought to be at work on our 'Lincoln.' I don't think the time for publication has come, but the time for preparation is slipping away."[38] Robert Lincoln in 1874 formally agreed to let Hay and Nicolay use his father's papers; by 1875, they were engaged in research. Hay and Nicolay enjoyed exclusive access to Lincoln's papers, which were not opened to other researchers until 1947. They gathered documents written by others, as well as many of the Civil War books already being published. They at rare times relied on memory, such as Nicolay's recollection of the moment at the 1860 Republican convention when Lincoln was nominated, but for much of the rest relied on research.[38]
Hay began his part of the writing in 1876;[215] the work was interrupted by illnesses of Hay, Nicolay, or family members,[38] or by Hay's writing of The Bread-Winners.[215] By 1885, Hay had completed the chapters on Lincoln's early life,[216] and they were submitted to Robert Lincoln for approval.[217] Sale of the serialization rights to The Century magazine, edited by Hay's friend Richard Gilder, helped give the pair the impetus to bring what had become a massive project to an end.[218]
The published work, Abraham Lincoln: A History, alternates parts in which Lincoln is at center with discussions of contextual matters, such as legislative events or battles.[219] The first serial installment, published in November 1886, received positive reviews.[220] When the ten-volume set emerged in 1890, it was not sold in bookstores, but instead door-to-door, then a common practice. Despite a price of $50, and the fact that a good part of the work had been serialized, five thousand copies were quickly sold.[221] The books helped forge the modern view of Lincoln as great war leader, against competing narratives that gave more credit to subordinates such as Seward. According to historian Joshua Zeitz, "it is easy to forget how widely underrated Lincoln the president and Lincoln the man were at the time of his death and how successful Hay and Nicolay were in elevating his place in the nation's collective historical memory."[38]
Assessment and legacy
In 1902, Hay wrote that when he died, "I shall not be much missed except by my wife."[222] Nevertheless, due to his premature death at age 66, he was survived by most of his friends.[223] These included Adams, who although he blamed the pressures of Hay's office, where he was badgered by Roosevelt and many senators, for the Secretary of State's death, admitted that Hay had remained in the position because he feared being bored. He memorialized his friend in the final pages of his autobiographical The Education of Henry Adams: with Hay's death, his own education had ended.[224]
Gale pointed out that Hay "accomplished a great deal in the realm of international statesmanship, and the world may be a better place because of his efforts as secretary of state ... the man was a scintillating ambassador".[225] Yet, Gale felt, any assessment of Hay must include negatives as well, that after his marriage to the wealthy Clara Stone, Hay "allowed his deep-seated love of ease triumph over his Middle Western devotion to work and a fair shake for all."[225] Despite his literary accomplishments, Hay "was often lazy. His first poetry was his best."[225]
Taliaferro suggests that "if Hay put any ... indelible stamp on history, perhaps it was that he demonstrated how the United States ought to comport itself. He, not Roosevelt, was the adult in charge when the nation and the State Department attained global maturity."
Hay's efforts to shape Lincoln's image increased his own prominence and reputation in making his association (and that of Nicolay) with the assassinated president ever more remarkable and noteworthy. According to Zeitz, "the greater Lincoln grew in death, the greater they grew for having known him so well, and so intimately, in life. Everyone wanted to know them if only to ask what it had been like—what he had been like."
Hay brought about more than 50 treaties, including the Canal-related treaties,
In 1923
According to historian Lewis L. Gould, in his account of McKinley's presidency,
One of the most entertaining and interesting letter writers who ever ran the State Department, the witty, dapper, and bearded Hay left behind an abundance of documentary evidence on his public career. His name is indelibly linked with that verity of the nation's Asian policy, the Open Door, and he contributed much to the resolution of the longstanding problems with the British. Patient, discreet, and judicious, Hay deserves to stand in the front rank of secretaries of state.[240]
See also
Notes
- ^ Hay's office is today known as the Queens' Sitting Room; the bedroom he shared with Nicolay is known as the Queens' Bedroom. See Zeitz 2014a, p. 87.
- ^ According to Zeitz, $1,500. See Zeitz 2014a, p. 71.
- , p. 18.
- ^ Cromwell Varley, Perdicaris's stepson by his wife's first marriage to an Englishman, was also kidnapped. See Woolman.
- ^ Woolman, in his 1997 article on the incident, states that Roosevelt was behind Cannon's action. See Woolman.
References
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- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 15–16.
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- ^ Stevenson & Stevenson, p. 19.
- ^ a b Stevenson & Stevenson, p. 20.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Thayer I, pp. 21–22.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 19–21.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 27.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, p. 56.
- ^ Kushner, p. 367.
- ^ Thayer I, p. 87.
- ^ a b c Kushner & Sherrill, p. 28.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 37.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, p. 71.
- ^ Thayer I, p. 88.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 39.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, pp. 87–88.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 43.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, p. 92.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 47.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 45–46.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, pp. 107–09.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 52–54.
- ^ a b Gale, p. 18.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, pp. 94–95.
- ^ Thayer I, pp. 203–06.
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- ^ Thayer I, pp. 155–56.
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- ^ a b c Kushner & Sherrill, p. 62.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, pp. 161–64.
- ^ a b c d e Zeitz 2014b.
- ^ Hay, John (1915). The Life and Letters of John Hay, Vol. 1 (quote's original source is Hay's diary, which is quoted in Abraham Lincoln: A History, Vol. 10, p. 292, by John G. Nicolay and John Hay). Houghton Mifflin Company. Retrieved April 25, 2014.
- ^ Thayer I, pp. 219–220.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 105, 107.
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- ^ a b Kushner, p. 370.
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- ^ Zeitz 2014a, p. 205.
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- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 171–73.
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- ^ Kushner, pp. 373–74.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, p. 206.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 179–81.
- ^ Kushner, pp. 374–75.
- ^ Kushner, pp. 375–76.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, pp. 206–07.
- ^ Kushner, p. 377.
- ^ Ackerman, pp. 205–06.
- ^ Kushner, pp. 377–78.
- ^ a b Kushner, p. 378.
- ^ a b Zeitz 2014a, p. 212.
- ^ Gale, p. 14.
- ^ Friedlaender, p. 137.
- ^ Kushner, p. 379.
- ^ Friedlaender, p. 140.
- ^ Friedlaender, pp. 144–45.
- ^ Friedlaender, p. 154.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, p. 211.
- ^ Gale, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Kushner, pp. 378–79.
- ^ Kushner, pp. 381–82.
- ^ a b Taliaferro, p. 258.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 282.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 78–80.
- ^ a b Taliaferro, pp. 294–96.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 297–98.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 81–82.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 300–01.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 305–06.
- ^ a b c Taliaferro, p. 307.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, p. 83.
- ^ a b Taliaferro, pp. 307–11.
- ^ a b Zeitz 2014a, p. 323.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 310.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 310–13.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 83–84.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 314.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 315.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 316–17.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, p. 86.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 99–100.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 88–90.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 90–93.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 322–23.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 323–28.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 97–98.
- ISBN 978-1-4516-2544-8.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, p. 329.
- ^ a b Taliaferro, p. 330.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, p. 324.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 331–32.
- ^ Gould, p. 129.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 333–35.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 335–36.
- ^ Secretary John Hay by Henry Macfarland – 1900, pg. 21
- ^ Gould, pp. 45–46, 199.
- ^ Dennett, p. 55.
- ^ Gale, p. 31.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 341–47.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 353–54.
- ^ a b Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 96–97.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, p. 105.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 353–56.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 349, 356.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 356.
- ^ a b Taliaferro, pp. 356–57.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 359.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, p. 108.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 359–60.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 109–10.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 363.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 375–76.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 110–12.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 377–84.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 374–79.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 397–99.
- ^ Thayer II, p. 262.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, p. 124.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 406–07.
- ^ Leech, p. 599.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 407.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 407, 410.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 337.
- ^ Thayer II, p. 266.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 409–10.
- ^ Thayer II, p. 268.
- ^ a b c d Zeitz 2014a, p. 332.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 411, 413.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 190–91.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 344.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 116–17.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 345–48.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 352.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 366–70.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, p. 121.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 392.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 411–12.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 425.
- ^ Gale, p. 37.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 442.
- ^ a b Gale, p. 38.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 478.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 478–503.
- ^ Thayer II, p. 324.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 126–27.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, pp. 332–33.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, p. 335.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, p. 127.
- ^ a b Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 128–29.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 510–14.
- ^ a b Woolman.
- ^ a b Taliaferro, pp. 514–15.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 522–23.
- ^ Gale, p. 36.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 523–28.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 533–34.
- ^ Thayer II, p. 400.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 538.
- ^ Thayer II, p. 401.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 538–39.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 539.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 539–41.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 541–44.
- ^ Gale, p. 54.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, pp. 45–46.
- ^ Gale, p. 60.
- ^ Gale, p. 61.
- ^ Gale, pp. 60–61.
- ^ Howells, p. 348.
- ^ Gale, pp. 68–79.
- ^ Gale, p. 80.
- ^ Stevenson & Stevenson, p. 23.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, p. 49.
- ^ Gale, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Gale, p. 55.
- ^ Kushner & Sherrill, p. 50.
- ^ Gale, pp. 55–56.
- ^ Gale, p. 87.
- ^ Jaher, p. 71.
- ^ a b Dalrymple, p. 134.
- ^ a b Gale, pp. 87–91.
- ^ Jaher, pp. 86–87.
- ^ Jaher, p. 73.
- ^ Sloane, p. 276.
- ^ a b Gale, p. 95.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 235.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, p. 256.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, pp. 266–67.
- ^ Gale, p. 99.
- ^ Taliaferro, p. 250.
- ^ Taliaferro, pp. 261–62.
- ^ Gale, p. 40.
- ^ Gale, p. 41.
- ^ Gale, p. 42.
- ^ a b c d Gale, p. 125.
- ^ a b Taliaferro, p. 548.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, p. 3.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, pp. 338–39.
- ^ Zeitz 2014a, p. 6.
- ^ "John Hay". National Park Service. Archived from the original on July 26, 2014. Retrieved July 17, 2014.
- ^ Ryden, George Herbert. The Foreign Policy of the United States in Relation to Samoa. New York: Octagon Books, 1975. (Reprint by special arrangement with Yale University Press. Originally published at New Haven: Yale University Press, 1928), p. 574
- ^ "Purchase of the United States Virgin Islands, 1917". United States Department of State. July 21, 2008. Archived from the original on October 21, 2014. Retrieved July 29, 2014.
- ^ "Mount Herbert". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
- ^ Mitchell, Martha. "John Hay Library". Brown University. Archived from the original on February 17, 2012. Retrieved July 17, 2014.
- ^ United States Fish and Wildlife Service (October 21, 2014). "About the Refuge". Archived from the original on August 15, 2015. Retrieved October 8, 2015.
- ^ Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests. "John Hay Land Studies Center". Archived from the original on October 12, 2014. Retrieved July 17, 2014.
- ^ Washington, Julie (September 1, 2011). "Hay-McKinney Mansion a perfect spot to tour history". The Plain Dealer. AdvanceOhio. Archived from the original on July 22, 2016. Retrieved July 19, 2016.
- ISBN 978-1476617541. Archivedfrom the original on July 8, 2023. Retrieved December 7, 2017.
- ^ Halsema, James J. E. J. Halsema: Colonial Engineer A Biography. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1991; pp 292–295; Mansell, Donald E. Under the Shadow of the Rising Sun. Nampa, ID: Pacific Press, 2003 pp. 41–48.
- ^ Gould, p. 130.
Bibliography
Books
- Ackerman, Kenneth D. (2011). Dark Horse: The Surprise Election and Political Murder of President James A. Garfield (Kindle ed.). Falls Church, VA: Viral History Press, LLC. ]
- Dennett, Tyler (1934). John Hay From Poetry To Politics. Dodd, Mead & Company.
- Gale, Robert L. (1978). John Hay. Twayne's American Authors. Boston: Twayne Publishers. ISBN 0-8057-7199-9.
- ISBN 978-0-7006-0206-3.
- Kushner, Howard I.; Sherrill, Anne Hummel (1977). John Milton Hay: The Union of Poetry and Politics. Twayne's World Leaders. Boston: Twayne Publishers. ISBN 0-8057-7719-9.
- OCLC 456809.
- Taliaferro, John (2013). All the Great Prizes: The Life of John Hay, from Lincoln to Roosevelt (Kindle ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4165-9741-4.
- OCLC 445576.
- Thayer, William Roscoe (1915). The Life and Letters of John Hay. Vol. II. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. OCLC 445576.
- ISBN 978-1-101-63807-1.
Journals and other sources
- Dalrymple, Scott (Fall 1999). "John Hay's Revenge: Anti-Labor Novels, 1880–1905" (PDF). Business and Economic History. 28 (1): 133–42. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 14, 2013.
- Friedlaender, Marc (1969). "Henry Hobson Richardson, Henry Adams, and John Hay". Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society. Third Series. 81: 137–66. JSTOR 25080672.(subscription required)
- JSTOR 25105451.(subscription required)
- Jaher, Frederic Cople (Spring 1972). "Industrialism and the American Aristocrat: A Social Study of John Hay and His Novel, the Bread-Winners". Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society. 65 (1): 69–93. JSTOR 40190942.(subscription required)
- Kushner, Howard I. (September 1974). "'The Strong God Circumstance': The Political Career of John Hay". Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society. 67 (4): 352–84. JSTOR 40191317.(subscription required)
- Sloane, David E. E. (Fall 1969). "John Hay's The Bread-Winners as Literary Realism". American Literary Realism, 1870–1910. 2 (3): 276–79. JSTOR 27747664.(subscription required)
- Stevenson Jr., James D.; Stevenson, Randehl K. (Spring–Summer 2006). "John Milton Hay's Literary Influence". Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society. 99 (1): 19–27. JSTOR 40193908.(subscription required)
- Woolman, David (October 1997). "Did Theodore Roosevelt Overreact When an American was Kidnapped in Morocco? Were Seven Warships Really Necessary?". Military History. 14 (4).
- Zeitz, Joshua (February 2014). "Lincoln's Boys: John Hay, John Nicolay and the War For Lincoln's Image". Smithsonian. 44 (10).
Further reading
- ISBN 978-0809338634
External videos | |
---|---|
Presentation by Zwonitzer on The Statesman and the Storyteller, April 26, 2016, C-SPAN |
- Philip McFarland, John Hay, Friend of Giants: The Man and Life Connecting Abraham Lincoln, Mark Twain, Henry James, and Theodore Roosevelt (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2017)
- Helen Nicolay (1949). Lincoln's Secretary: A Biography of John George Nicolay. Longman's Green. Review by J. G. Randall. Helen Nicolay was John G. Nicolay's daughter.
- Patricia O'Toole, The Five of Hearts: An Intimate Portrait of Henry Adams and His Friends, 1880–1918 (New York: Clarkson Potter, 1990)
- Warren Zimmermann, First Great Triumph: How Five Americans Made Their Country a World Power (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002)
- Mark Zwonitzer, The Statesman and the Storyteller: John Hay, Mark Twain, and the Rise of American Imperialism (Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books, 2016)
External links
- John Hay Biography
- John Hay Land Studies Center Archived October 12, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
- John Hay National Wildlife Refuge Archived November 9, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
- The Fells Reservation
- Works by John Hay at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about John Hay at Internet Archive
- Works by John Hay at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)