John Sigismund Zápolya
John II Sigismund | |
---|---|
Calvinist (1564–1568) (1568–1571)Unitarian |
John Sigismund Zápolya or Szapolyai (
Suleiman invaded Hungary under the pretext of protecting John Sigismund from Ferdinand.
Ferdinand was unable to protect eastern Hungary against the Ottomans. At Suleiman's urging, the
John Sigismund initiated a series of theological debates among the representatives of the concurring theological schools of the
Family
John Sigismund's father,
John paid homage to Suleiman at
John Sigismund was born in Buda on 7 July 1540.[11] On learning of his birth, his father, who was on campaign in Transylvania, rode to his soldiers' camp to inform them of the good news.[12] The following day John fell ill,[12] and he died on 21 or 22 July.[12] Before his death he persuaded those present at his death bed to take an oath that they would prevent the transfer of his realm to Ferdinand.[8]
Childhood
Accession
Soon after John Zápolya died, his treasurer, George Martinuzzi, hurried to Buda to secure John Sigismund's inheritance.[9] On Martinuzzi's proposal, the Diet of Hungary elected John Sigismund king on 13 September 1540, but he was not crowned with the Holy Crown of Hungary.[7][13] The Diet proclaimed Queen Isabella and George Martinuzzi, along with two powerful lords, Péter Petrovics and Bálint Török, the guardians of the infant monarch.[7][13]
In August, Ferdinand's envoys had demanded the transfer of the late John Zápolya's realm to Ferdinand in accordance with the Treaty of Várad.
Ferdinand's army seized
Suleiman said that he had come to protect John Sigismund's interests, but also announced that he wanted to see the infant king, because he had heard rumours about Isabella's having actually given birth to a daughter.
First rule
Isabella and Martinuzzi left Buda on 5 September 1541, taking John Sigismund and the Holy Crown with them.
On 29 March 1542, the "
The Transylvanian Diet confirmed the Treaty of Gyalu in August.[24] The representatives of the noblemen of the Partium (the counties between the Tisza and Transylvania) also consented to a war against the Ottoman Empire in November.[24] However, the Habsburgs' army was unable to recapture Pest or defeat the Ottomans.[24] Caspar Serédy came to Gyalu to take possession of John Sigismund's realm on Ferdinand's behalf, but Isabella refused him on 17 December.[24] Three days later, the Diet declared the Treaty of Gyalu null and void, over the objections of the delegates of the Transylvanian Saxons.[21][24]
The relationship between Isabella and Martinuzzi was tense.
The first Transylvanian Diet at which delegates from the Partium were present met in August 1544.[31][21] At the Diet, Martinuzzi was made chief justice.[31] Five counties that had previously accepted Ferdinand's rule – Bereg, Szabolcs, Szatmár, Ung and Zemplén – swore allegiance to John Sigismund before the end of 1555.[31]
The Ottomans laid claim to two fortresses, Becse and Becskerek (now Novi Bečej and Zrenjanin in Serbia), in early 1546.[27] The sultan refused to include John Sigismund's realm in the peace treaty that he concluded with Ferdinand's brother, Emperor Charles V, in 1547.[32] Both actions suggested that Suleiman intended to seize part of John Sigismund's kingdom, prompting Isabella and Martinuzzi to reopen negotiations with Ferdinand on the reunification of Hungary in 1548.[27] Martinuzzi and Ferdinand's envoy, Nicolaus of Salm, signed a treaty in Nyírbátor on 8 September 1549.[33][34] According to their agreement, Isabella and John Sigismund were to abdicate in exchange for the Silesian duchies of Opole and Racibórz and 100,000 florins in compensation.[33] Isabella refused to execute the treaty and remained in Gyulafehérvár.[35] Martinuzzi laid siege to the town, forcing her to give up resistance in October 1550.[36]
Isabella and her supporters Péter Petrovics and Ferenc Patócsy made a new attempt to prevent the execution of the Treaty of Nyírbátor in May 1551, but Martinuzzi defeated them.[36][35] Under duress, Isabella abdicated in favor of Ferdinand on John Sigismund's behalf, in return for the two Silesian duchies and 140,000 florins on 19 July.[34][37] Two days later, she surrendered the Holy Crown to Ferdinand's representative, Giovanni Battista Castaldo.[38] The Diet acknowledged their abdication and swore fealty to Ferdinand on 26 July.[38]
In exile
Isabella and John Sigismund left Transylvania on 6 August 1551, accompanied by Péter Petrovics.[38] They settled in Kassa (now Košice in Slovakia), and moved to Opole in March 1552.[38] Realizing that the Silesian duchies were poor, they left for Poland before the end of April.[39] During the following years they lived in Kraków, Warsaw, Sanok, and other Polish towns.[40] John Sigismund often went hunting for bison and regularly visited his uncle, Sigismund II Augustus, King of Poland.[41] However, his health was delicate because he suffered from epilepsy and chronic intestinal disorders.[42]
The contemporaneous historian Ferenc Forgách, who was Isabella's implacable enemy, accused her of bringing her son up "shamefully", allowing him to keep bad company and drink.[41] John Sigismund's tutors were actually humanist scholars: the Hungarian Mihály Csáky and the Polish Wojciech Nowopołski.[41] Nowopołski aroused John Sigismund's interest in theological debates.[41]
Ferdinand's rule remained fragile in the eastern territories of the Kingdom of Hungary because he did not send enough mercenaries to defend them.[43] Suspecting that Martinuzzi was conspiring with the Ottomans, Castaldo had Martinuzzi murdered in late 1551.[43] The Ottomans occupied the lowlands of Banat in the summer of 1552.[43][44][45]
In March 1553 Suleiman urged Isabella to return to Hungary.[46] Péter Petrovics rose against Ferdinand, and an assembly of the Székely people declared their loyalty to John Sigismund.[46] However, both uprisings were crushed before the end of September.[46] Deciding in April 1554 that Hungary should be restored to John Sigismund,[47] Suleiman allowed Péter Petrovics to take control of two fortresses in Banat.[47] Henry II of France, engaged in war against the Habsburgs, also urged Isabella to return to Hungary, promising one of his daughters in marriage to John Sigismund.[41][48]
Suleiman sent messages to the Transylvanian lords in 1555, demanding they obey John Sigismund without resistance.[48] Before the end of the year, the representatives of the Three Nations petitioned Ferdinand either to send reinforcements or to absolve them from their oath of fealty.[49] Petrovics stormed into Transylvania in early 1556.[49] The Diet swore an oath of fealty to John Sigismund on 12 March 1556, referring to him as "the son of King John".[49] The envoys of the Diet departed for Poland on 1 June to persuade Isabella and her son to return.[50] Two weeks later, Ferdinand informed Suleiman that he was ready to withdraw his troops from John Sigismund's former realm.[49]
Return
The representatives of the Three Nations received Isabella and John Sigismund with much pomp and ceremony in
Isabella adopted a tolerant religious policy, enabling the spread of
King-elect
Start of personal rule
John Sigismund's rule began with his mother's death.
John Sigismund showed a particular interest in religious matters and initiated several debates among the representatives of diverse
Melchior Balassa, one of the wealthiest lords in John Sigismund's realm, deserted to Ferdinand in December 1561.[51][53] John Sigismund moved to seize Balassa's domains, but his army was routed at Hadad (now Hodod in Romania) on 4 March 1562.[56] Stirred up by Balassa, the Székely commoners rose to restore their ancient liberties (including exemption from taxes), which had been restricted in the 1550s.[57] John Sigismund's army routed them in May,[56] and their leaders were impaled or mutilated.[56][58] The Diet adopted new laws to restrict the privileges of the Székelys, including a ban on the employment of commoners as jurors.[58] Two new royal castles named Székelytámad ("Székely-assault") and Székelybánja ("Székely-regret") were erected in the Székely Land.[59] After Balassa's revolt, most counties outside Transylvania changed allegiance from John Sigismund to Ferdinand.[51] To persuade Ferdinand to renounce the counties, John Sigismund even offered not to style himself king, but this was rejected in July 1562.[56]
John Sigismund, originally Roman Catholic, converted to Lutheranism before the end of 1562.[60] However, debates between Lutheran and Calvinist theologians continued.[61] John Sigismund appointed his court physician, Giorgio Biandrata (who as an Anti-Trinitarian did not share either the Lutheran or the Calvinist view) to head a synod to reconcile the Lutheran and the Calvinist clergymen, but their differences proved insuperable in April 1564.[61] The Diet acknowledged the existence of a separate Calvinist denomination in June.[61] John Sigismund also adopted Calvinism and made Ferenc Dávid his court preacher.[61][62]
Wars and debates
Ferdinand died on 25 July 1564, and his son Maximilian II succeeded him.
However, the Ottomans forced John Sigismund to declare the treaty null and void on 21 April.
Ferenc Dávid began to include Anti-Trinitarian ideas in his sermons, which infuriated the Calvinist bishop of Debrecen,
Sultan Suleiman came to Zemun on the Danube in preparation for his campaign against Habsburg territories in the summer of 1566.[67] John Sigismund hurried to the sultan's camp, accompanied by 400 Transylvanian lords.[68] After John Sigismund and his principal advisors prostrated themselves before the sultan in his tent, Suleiman confirmed John Sigismund's position as hereditary ruler.[68][49][69] According to the eyewitness Mustafa Selaniki, the sultan addressed John Sigismund as his "beloved son".[70]
John Sigismund invaded Upper Hungary on the sultan's order on 28 July.
[John Sigismund] is of medium height and slender, with blond, silky hair and extremely fine, white skin. ... [H]is blue eyes gaze mildly and with benevolence ... His arms and hands are long and finely articulated, but powerful ... [H]e heartily enjoys every kind of hunting, both for large game ... and for hare and fowl. ... He enjoys training horses. ... He is very strong in battle with the lance ... [I]n archery few are his equal ... He runs and jumps better than average; he loves wrestling, even if many are superior to him ... [H]e loves music very much ... He plays the
John Sigismund appointed a Calvinist bishop as the only religious leader of the Romanians in his realm in November 1566.[71] The Diet also ordered that all Romanian priests who refused to convert to Calvinism were to be expelled, but this decision was not carried out.[71] Influenced by Dávid and Biandrata, John Sigismund became receptive to Anti-Trinitarian ideas from early 1567.[72] With John Sigismund's support, Dávid published five books to promote his views, reproving for idolatry those who accepted the dogma of the Trinity.[73]
John Sigismund and Hasan Pasha stormed into Upper Hungary in March 1567.[74] However, John Sigismund was taken seriously ill in summer.[74] The Transylvanian lords pledged to respect his last will when electing his successor.[74] The Ottoman Sultan Selim II granted the Transylvanian lords the right to freely elect their monarch, only preserving the right to approve their decision.[60] Before long, John Sigismund recovered.[74]
Freedom of religion
The Diet met again in Torda in early 1568 and authorized preachers to "teach the Gospel" according to their own understanding.[75] The Diet also declared that nobody should "suffer at the hands of others for religious reasons", stating that "faith is a gift of God".[76] The Edict of Torda expanded the limits of religious freedom far beyond the standard of 16th-century Europe.[77] The decree did not put a complete end to discrimination, because official status was granted only to the Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinist clergymen, but Unitarian, Orthodox, Armenian, Jewish, and Muslim believers could also freely practise their religions.[77]
The Treaty of Adrianople, signed in February 1568, concluded the first war between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburgs.[64][78] According to the treaty, John Sigismund retained all territories that he had conquered from Maximilian II in the previous years.[79] The envoy of the Ottoman Sultan Selim II in Paris suggested that John Sigismund should marry Margaret of Valois, but his proposal was ignored.[74]
Many theological discussions on the Trinity were organized in 1568, the first of them taking place in his presence in Gyulafehérvár from 8 to 17 March.[80] The growing influence of the Anti-Trinitarians on John Sigismund became obvious in 1569.[81] After Péter Károlyi, a Calvinist cleric, complained about John Sigismund's bias, John Sigismund accused the Calvinist bishop, Melius, of having persecuted non-Calvinist priests, stating that Melius "should not play the pope".[82] The largest debate between the Calvinist and Anti-Trinitarian, or Unitarian, theologians took place in Nagyvárad from 20 to 25 October 1569.[81][62] Although neither side was declared winner, after the debate John Sigismund accepted Anti-Trinitarian ideas, which made him the only Unitarian monarch in history.[83][75][84]
We wish that in our country ... freedom shall reign. We know furthermore that faith is a gift from God and that conscience cannot be constrained. And if [Peter Melius Juhász] does not abide by this, he may go to the other side of the Tisza.|John Sigismund's words to Péter Károlyi[85]
After John Sigismund's conversion, most of his courtiers also adhered to Unitarianism.[62] According to historian Gábor Barta, political factors also contributed to John Sigismund's conversion, because he "found in [Anti-Trinitarianism] the means through which he could express both his adherence to the Christian world and the distance from it".[86] István Keul says that the simplicity of the idea that "There is but one God!" also contributed to the spread of Unitarianism, especially among the Székely villagers and the townspeople of Kolozsvár.[87] A religious enthusiast, György Karácsony, stirred up many peasants in Partium to wage holy war against the Ottomans in 1569.[88] They marched against Debrecen, but the neighboring noblemen routed them near the town in early 1570.[88]
Prince of Transylvania
Negotiations between John Sigismund and Maximilian II concluded with the Treaty of Speyer, signed on 16 August 1570.[10][51] John Sigismund acknowledged Maximilian II as the sole king of Hungary and abandoned his own royal title.[10][64] Instead, he adopted the new title "Prince of Transylvania and Lord of Parts of the Kingdom of Hungary", also confirming that his realm was part of the Kingdom of Hungary and would revert to Maximilian II or Maximilian II's heir after John Sigismund's death.[10][89][90]
John Sigismund, now gravely ill, ratified the treaty on 1 December.[91] The last Diet to meet during his reign confirmed the decrees of previous Diets enhancing religious freedom.[91] He died in Gyulafehérvár on 14 March 1571, a few days after Maximilian II had ratified the Treaty of Speyer.[92] The Transylvanian lords kept his death secret for days.[41] He was buried in St. Michael's Cathedral in Gyulafehérvár, in accordance with Unitarian rite.[41]
John Sigismund had made his last testament and will in the presence of
John Sigismund, who never married and left no heir, was the last member of the Zápolya family.[94] In his will, he assured the Diet of its right to choose the new monarch.[97] The representatives of the Three Nations elected the Roman Catholic Stephen Báthory, who adopted the title Voivode of Transylvania.[92] Gáspár Bekes, supported by Maximilian II, contested the election, but Báthory emerged victorious in the resulting civil war and consolidated his rule.[92]
Ancestors
Ancestors of John Sigismund Zápolya Casimir IV of Poland | | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
25. Sophia of Halshany | ||||||||||||||||
6. Sigismund I of Poland | ||||||||||||||||
26. Albert II of Germany | ||||||||||||||||
13. Elizabeth of Austria | ||||||||||||||||
27. Elizabeth of Luxembourg | ||||||||||||||||
3. Isabella Jagiellon | ||||||||||||||||
28. Galeazzo Maria Sforza | ||||||||||||||||
14. Gian Galeazzo Sforza | ||||||||||||||||
29. Bona of Savoy | ||||||||||||||||
7. Bona Sforza | ||||||||||||||||
30. Alfonso II of Naples | ||||||||||||||||
15. Isabella of Naples | ||||||||||||||||
31. Ippolita Maria Sforza | ||||||||||||||||
References
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 361.
- ^ Kontler 1999, pp. 136, 139.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 139.
- ^ Kontler 1999, pp. 139–140.
- ^ Cartledge 2011, p. 82.
- ^ a b Barta 1994, p. 251.
- ^ a b c d Felezeu 2009, p. 19.
- ^ a b c Kontler 1999, p. 140.
- ^ a b c Barta 1994, p. 252.
- ^ a b c d e Oborni 2012, p. 168.
- ^ Oborni 2012, p. 172.
- ^ a b c Oborni 2012, p. 155.
- ^ a b c d e Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 372.
- ^ a b Barta 1994, pp. 252–253.
- ^ a b c d e Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 373.
- ^ a b c d Felezeu 2009, p. 20.
- ^ a b c Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 374.
- ^ a b Szakály 1994, p. 85.
- ^ a b c Cartledge 2011, p. 83.
- ^ Oborni 2012, p. 170.
- ^ a b c d e f g Barta 1994, p. 254.
- ^ a b Szegedi 2009, p. 101.
- ^ a b c Barta 1994, p. 253.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 375.
- ^ Keul 2009, p. 61.
- ^ a b c Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 376.
- ^ a b c Barta 1994, p. 255.
- ^ Keul 2009, pp. 64–65, 69.
- ^ Keul 2009, p. 69.
- ^ Keul 2009, p. 75.
- ^ a b c Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 377.
- ^ Barta 1994, pp. 255–256.
- ^ a b Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 381.
- ^ a b Oborni 2012, p. 169.
- ^ a b Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 383.
- ^ a b Barta 1994, p. 256.
- ^ Cartledge 2011, p. 84.
- ^ a b c d Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 384.
- ^ Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 385.
- ^ Oborni 2012, p. 171.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Oborni 2012, p. 173.
- ^ Harris 2009, p. 281.
- ^ a b c Kontler 1999, p. 147.
- ^ Felezeu 2009, p. 22.
- ^ Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 386.
- ^ a b c Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 387.
- ^ a b Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 388.
- ^ a b Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 389.
- ^ a b c d e Barta 1994, p. 258.
- ^ a b Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 390.
- ^ a b c d e Barta 1994, p. 259.
- ^ Keul 2009, pp. 95, 103.
- ^ a b c d e f Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 392.
- ^ a b c d e f g Keul 2009, p. 99.
- ^ a b Keul 2009, p. 103.
- ^ a b c d Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 393.
- ^ Barta 1994, pp. 283–284.
- ^ a b Barta 1994, p. 284.
- ^ Barta 1994, p. 285.
- ^ a b c d e Keul 2009, p. 100.
- ^ a b c d Keul 2009, p. 104.
- ^ a b c Harris 2009, p. 280.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 395.
- ^ a b c d Kontler 1999, p. 148.
- ^ Keul 2009, pp. 107–108.
- ^ a b Keul 2009, p. 108.
- ^ a b c Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 396.
- ^ a b Fehér 1972, p. 479.
- ^ Felezeu 2009, pp. 51–52.
- ^ Felezeu 2009, p. 51.
- ^ a b Keul 2009, p. 105.
- ^ Keul 2009, pp. 109–110.
- ^ Keul 2009, p. 110.
- ^ a b c d e Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 397.
- ^ a b Barta 1994, p. 290.
- ^ Keul 2009, p. 111.
- ^ a b Szakály 1994, p. 126.
- ^ Felezeu 2009, p. 24.
- ^ Felezeu 2009, p. 25.
- ^ Keul 2009, pp. 111–112.
- ^ a b Keul 2009, p. 114.
- ^ Keul 2009, pp. 114–115.
- ^ Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 398.
- ^ Harris 2009, pp. 279–280.
- ^ Keul 2009, pp. 112, 114–115.
- ^ Barta 1994, pp. 290–291.
- ^ Keul 2009, p. 115.
- ^ a b Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 400.
- ^ Barta 1994, pp. 259–260.
- ^ Felezeu 2009, pp. 25–26.
- ^ a b Barta & Granasztói 1981, p. 401.
- ^ a b c Barta 1994, p. 260.
- ^ Heckenast 2005, p. 328.
- ^ a b Heckenast 2005, p. 317.
- ^ Heckenast 2005, pp. 317, 324, 331.
- ^ Keul 2009, p. 101.
- ^ Heckenast 2005, p. 330.
- ^ Markó 2006, pp. 9, 38, 243.
- ^ Frost 2015, pp. 133, 279.
Sources
- Barta, Gábor (1994). "The Emergence of the Principality and its First Crises (1526–1606)". In Köpeczi, Béla; Barta, Gábor; Bóna, István; Makkai, László; Szász, Zoltán; Borus, Judit (eds.). History of Transylvania. Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 247–300. ISBN 963-05-6703-2.
- Barta, Gábor; Granasztói, György (1981). "A három részre szakadt ország és a török kiűzése (1526–1605)". In Benda, Kálmán; Péter, Katalin (eds.). Magyarország történeti kronológiája, II: 1526–1848 [Historical Chronology of Hungary, Volume I: 1526–1848] (in Hungarian). Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 361–430. ISBN 963-05-2662-X.
- Cartledge, Bryan (2011). The Will to Survive: A History of Hungary. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-1-84904-112-6.
- Engel, Pál (2001). The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526. I.B. Tauris Publishers. ISBN 1-86064-061-3.
- Fehér, G. (1972). "Hungarian historical scenes recorded in Turkish chronicle illustrations". Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. XXV. Akadémiai Kiadó: 472–492. JSTOR 23657173.
- Felezeu, Călin (2009). "The International Political Background (1541–1699); The Legal Status of the Principality of Transylvania in Its Relations with the Ottoman Porte". In Pop, Ioan-Aurel; Nägler, Thomas; Magyari, András (eds.). The History of Transylvania, Vo. II (From 1541 to 1711). Romanian Academy, Center for Transylvanian Studies. pp. 15–73. ISBN 978-973-7784-04-9.
- Frost, Robert (2015). The Oxford History of Poland-Lithuania, VolumeI: The Making of the Polish-Lithuanian Union, 1385–1569. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820869-3.
- Harris, Mark W. (2009). The A to Z of Unitarian Universalism. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6817-5.
- Heckenast, Gusztáv (2005). "János Zsigmond végrendelete (1567)" (PDF). Keresztény Magvető (in Hungarian). 111 (4). Unitarian Church of Transylvania: 317–334. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
- Keul, István (2009). Early Modern Religious Communities in East-Central Europe: Ethnic Diversity, Denominational Plurality, and Corporative Politics in the Principality of Transylvania (1526–1691). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-17652-2.
- Kontler, László (1999). Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary. Atlantisz Publishing House. ISBN 963-9165-37-9.
- Markó, László (2006). A magyar állam főméltóságai Szent Istvántól napjainkig: Életrajzi Lexikon [Great Officers of State in Hungary from King Saint Stephen to Our Days: A Biographical Encyclopedia] (in Hungarian). Helikon Kiadó. ISBN 963-547-085-1.
- Oborni, Teréz (2012). "Szapolyai (I) János; Jagelló Izabella; János Zsigmond". In Gujdár, Noémi; Szatmáry, Nóra (eds.). Magyar királyok nagykönyve: Uralkodóink, kormányzóink és az erdélyi fejedelmek életének és tetteinek képes története [Encyclopedia of the Kings of Hungary: An Illustrated History of the Life and Deeds of Our Monarchs, Regents and the Princes of Transylvania] (in Hungarian). Reader's Digest. pp. 152–155, 171–173. ISBN 978-963-289-214-6.
- Szakály, Ferenc (1994). "The Early Ottoman Period, Including Royal Hungary". In Sugar, Peter F.; Hanák, Péter; Frank, Tibor (eds.). A History of Hungary. Indiana University Press. pp. 83–99. ISBN 963-7081-01-1.
- Szegedi, Edit (2009). "The Birth and Evolution of the Principality of Transylvania (1541–1690)". In Pop, Ioan-Aurel; Nägler, Thomas; Magyari, András (eds.). The History of Transylvania, Vo. II (From 1541 to 1711). Romanian Academy, Center for Transylvanian Studies. pp. 99–111. ISBN 978-973-7784-04-9.