List of Atlantic hurricane records
As of May 2023, there have been 1,708
Tropical cyclogenesis
Most active / least active Atlantic hurricane seasons
Most
With the advent of the satellite came better and more accurate weather tracking. The first satellites sent into space to monitor the weather were known as Television Infrared Observation Satellites (TIROS). In 1961, Hurricane Esther was the first hurricane to be "discovered" through satellite readings.[4] Although this modern invention was now available, the systems were initially not fully active enough to provide daily images of the storms.[5] Data for the North Atlantic region remained sparse as late as 1964 due to a lack of complete satellite coverage.[6]
The most active Atlantic hurricane season on record in terms of total storms took place in 2020, with 30 documented. The storm count for the 2020 season also includes fourteen hurricanes, of which seven strengthened to major hurricane status. On the converse, the least active season on record in terms of total storms took place in 1914. The 1914 season had just one tropical storm and no hurricanes.
Most storms in a year | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Year | Tropical storms | Hurricanes | ||
Hurricanes | Major | |||
2020 | 30 * | 14 | 7 | |
2005 | 28 * | 15 | 7 | |
2021 | 21 * | 7 | 4 | |
1933 | 20 | 11 | 6 | |
2023 | 20 * | 7 | 3 | |
1887 | 19 | 11 | 2 | |
1995 | 19 | 11 | 5 | |
2010 | 19 | 12 | 5 | |
2011 | 19 | 7 | 4 | |
2012 | 19 | 10 | 2 | |
* Includes at least one subtropical storm Source: [7] |
Fewest storms in a year | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Year | Tropical storms | Hurricanes | ||
Hurricanes | Major | |||
1914 | 1 | 0 | 0 | |
1930 | 3 | 2 | 2 | |
1857 | 4 | 3 | 0 | |
1868 | 4 | 3 | 0 | |
1883 | 4 | 3 | 2 | |
1884 | 4 | 4 | 1 | |
1890 | 4 | 2 | 1 | |
1917 | 4 | 2 | 2 | |
1925 | 4 | 2 | 0 | |
1983 | 4 | 3 | 1 | |
Source: [7] |
Earliest / latest formations for each category
Climatologically speaking, approximately 97 percent of
Though the official end of the Atlantic hurricane season occurs on November 30, the dates of October 31 and November 15 have also historically marked the official end date for the hurricane season.[8] December, the only month of the year after the hurricane season, has featured the cyclogenesis of fourteen tropical cyclones.[11] The second Hurricane Alice in 1954 was the latest forming tropical storm and hurricane, reaching these intensities on December 30 and 31, respectively. Hurricane Alice and Tropical Storm Zeta were the only two storms to exist in two calendar years – the former from 1954 to 1955 and the latter from 2005 to 2006.[15] No storms have been recorded to exceed Category 1 hurricane intensity in December.[11] In 1999, Hurricane Lenny reached Category 4 intensity on November 17 as it took an unusual west to east track across the Caribbean; its intensity made it the latest developing Category 4 hurricane, though this was well within the bounds of the hurricane season.[16] Based on reanalysis, the devastating "Cuba" hurricane in 1932 reached Category 5 intensity on November 5, making it the latest in any Atlantic hurricane season to reach this intensity.[11][9][nb 2]
Earliest and latest forming Atlantic tropical / subtropical cyclones by Saffir–Simpson classification | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Storm classification |
Earliest formation | Latest formation | |||||
Season | Storm | Date reached | Season | Storm | Date reached | ||
Tropical depression
|
1900 | One[19] | January 17 | 1954 | Alice[11] | December 30[nb 3] | |
Tropical storm
|
1938 | One[11] | January 3 | 1954 | Alice[11] | December 30[nb 4] | |
Category 1
|
1938 | One[11]
|
January 4 | 1954 | Alice[11] | December 31 | |
Category 2
|
1908 | One[11]
|
March 7 | 2016 | Otto[11] | November 24 | |
Category 3
|
1966 | Alma[11] | June 8 | 2016 | Otto[11] | November 24 | |
Category 4
|
2005 | Dennis[20] | July 8 | 1999 | Lenny[11] | November 17 | |
Category 5
|
2005 | Emily[14][21] | July 17 | 1932 | "Cuba"[17]
|
November 5 |
Most tropical / subtropical storms formed in each month
The Atlantic hurricane season presently runs from June 1 through November 30 each year, with peak activity occurring between August and October. Specifically, the height of the season is in early to mid-September.[8] Tropical systems that form outside of these months are referred to as "off season", and account for roughly 3% of all storms that form in a given year.[8] All of the records included below are for the most storms that formed in a given month, as the threshold for "fewest" is zero for expected months. Cases where "fewest storms" are unusual include the months when the hurricane season is at its peak.
Number of Atlantic tropical / subtropical storm occurrences by month of naming | |||
---|---|---|---|
Month | |||
Most | Season | ||
January | 1[22] | 1938, 1951, 1978, 2016, 2023 | |
February | 1[23] | 1952[nb 5] | |
March | 1[24] | 1908[nb 5] | |
April | 1[22] | 1992, 2003, 2017 | |
May | 2[22] | 1887, 2012, 2020 | |
June | 3[22] | 1886, 1909, 1936, 1966, 1968, 2021, 2023 | |
July | 5[25] | 2005, 2020 | |
August | 8[22] | 2004, 2012 | |
September | 10[26] | 2020 | |
October | 8[22] | 1950 | |
November | 3[27] | 1931, 1961, 1966, 2001, 2005, 2020 | |
December | 2[22] | 1887, 2003 |
Earliest formation records by storm number
Earliest and next earliest forming Atlantic tropical / subtropical storms by storm number | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Storm number |
Earliest | Next earliest | ||
Name | Date of formation | Name | Date of formation | |
1 | One[11]
|
January 3, 1938 | One[11]
|
January 4, 1951 |
2 | Able[11] | May 16, 1951 | Two[11] | May 17, 1887 |
3 | Cristobal[28]
|
June 2, 2020 | Colin[28] | June 5, 2016 |
4 | Danielle[29]
|
June 20, 2016 | Cindy[29]
|
June 23, 2023[nb 6] |
5 | Elsa[30] | July 1, 2021 | Edouard[31]
|
July 6, 2020 |
6 | Fay[31] | July 9, 2020 | Franklin
|
July 21, 2005 |
7 | Gonzalo[32]
|
July 22, 2020 | Gert[32] | July 24, 2005 |
8 | Hanna[31] | July 24, 2020 | Harvey[31]
|
August 3, 2005 |
9 | Isaias[31] | July 30, 2020 | Irene[31] | August 7, 2005 |
10 | Josephine[31]
|
August 13, 2020 | Jose[31] | August 22, 2005 |
11 | Kyle[31]
|
August 14, 2020 | Katrina[31] | August 24, 2005 |
12 | Laura[31] | August 21, 2020 | Luis[31] | August 29, 1995 |
13 | Marco[33] | August 22, 2020 | Maria[33] | September 2, 2005[nb 7] |
Lee[33] | September 2, 2011[nb 8] | |||
14 | Nana[34] | September 1, 2020 | Nate[34] | September 5, 2005 |
15 | Omar[35]
|
September 1, 2020 | Ophelia[35] | September 7, 2005[nb 9] |
16 | Paulette[36] | September 7, 2020 | Philippe[36]
|
September 17, 2005 |
17 | Rene[36]
|
September 7, 2020 | Rita[36] | September 18, 2005 |
18 | Sally[37] | September 12, 2020 | Sam[38] | September 23, 2021 |
19 | Teddy[39] | September 14, 2020 | Teresa[40] | September 24, 2021 |
20 | Vicky[41]
|
September 14, 2020 | Victor[42] | September 29, 2021 |
21 | Alpha[43] | September 17, 2020 | Vince | October 9, 2005 |
22 | Wilfred[43]
|
September 17, 2020 | Wilma | October 17, 2005 |
23 | Beta[44] | September 18, 2020 | Alpha[44] | October 22, 2005 |
24 | Gamma[45] | October 2, 2020 | Beta[45] | October 27, 2005 |
25 | Delta[46] | October 5, 2020 | Gamma[46] | November 15, 2005 |
26 | Epsilon[47] | October 19, 2020 | Delta[47] | November 22, 2005 |
27 | Zeta[48] | October 25, 2020 | Epsilon[49] | November 29, 2005 |
28 | Eta[50] | November 1, 2020 | Zeta[51] | December 30, 2005 |
29 | Theta[52] | November 10, 2020 | Earliest formation by virtue of being the only of that number | |
30 | Iota[53] | November 13, 2020 |
Intensity
Most intense
Generally speaking, the intensity of a tropical cyclone is determined by either the storm's
Owing to their intensity, the strongest Atlantic hurricanes have all attained Category 5 classification.
Hurricane Rita is the fourth strongest Atlantic hurricane in terms of barometric pressure and one of three tropical cyclones from 2005 on the list, with the others being Wilma and Katrina at first and seventh, respectively.[11] However, with a barometric pressure of 895 mbar (hPa; 26.43 inHg), Rita is the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Gulf of Mexico.[65] In between Rita and Katrina is Hurricane Allen. Allen's pressure was measured at 899 mbar. Hurricane Camille is the sixth strongest hurricane on record. Camille is the only storm to have been moved down the list due to post-storm analysis. Camille was originally recognized as the fifth strongest hurricane on record, but was dropped to the seventh strongest in 2014, with an estimated pressure at 905 mbars, tying it with Hurricanes Mitch, and Dean. Camille then was recategorized with a new pressure of 900 mbars. Currently, Mitch and Dean share intensities for the eighth strongest Atlantic hurricane at 905 mbar (hPa; 26.73 inHg).[64] Hurricane Maria is in tenth place for most intense Atlantic tropical cyclone, with a pressure as low as 908 mbar (hPa; 26.81 inHg).[66] In addition, the most intense Atlantic hurricane outside of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico is Hurricane Dorian of 2019, with a pressure of 910 mbar (hPa; 26.9 inHg).[67]
Many of the strongest recorded tropical cyclones weakened prior to their eventual
- Note: Dropsondes have only been GPS-based for use in eyewalls since 1997,[70] and the quantity of aircraft reconnaissance and surface observation stations has changed over time, such that values from storms in different periods may not be 100% consistent.
Most intense by minimum barometric pressure
Most intense Atlantic hurricanes | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hurricane | Season | By peak pressure | By pressure at landfall | ||
mbar | inHg | mbar | inHg | ||
Wilma | 2005 | 882 | 26.05 | ||
Gilbert | 1988 | 888 | 26.22 | 900 | 26.58 |
"Labor Day" | 1935 | 892 | 26.34 | 892 | 26.34 |
Rita | 2005 | 895 | 26.43 | ||
Allen | 1980 | 899 | 26.55 | ||
Camille | 1969 | 900 | 26.58 | 900 | 26.58 |
Katrina | 2005 | 902 | 26.64 | ||
Mitch | 1998 | 905 | 26.72 | ||
Dean | 2007 | 905 | 26.72 | 905 | 26.72 |
Maria | 2017 | 908 | 26.81 | ||
"Cuba" | 1924 | 910 | 26.87 | ||
Dorian | 2019 | 910 | 26.87 | ||
Janet | 1955 | 914 | 26.99 | ||
Irma | 2017 | 914 | 26.99 | ||
"Cuba" | 1932 | 918 | 27.10 | ||
Michael | 2018 | 919 | 27.14 | ||
Note: Grey shading indicates that the pressure was not a record, only the top ten storms for each category are included here. |
Strongest by 1-minute sustained wind speed
Strongest Atlantic hurricanes | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hurricane | Season | By peak sustained wind speed | By wind speed at landfall | ||
mph | km/h | mph | km/h | ||
Allen | 1980 | 190 | 305 | ||
"Labor Day" | 1935 | 185 | 295 | 185 | 295 |
Gilbert | 1988 | 185 | 295 | ||
Dorian | 2019 | 185 | 295 | 185 | 295 |
Wilma | 2005 | 185 | 295 | ||
Mitch | 1998 | 180 | 285 | ||
Rita | 2005 | 180 | 285 | ||
Irma | 2017 | 180 | 285 | 180 | 285 |
"Cuba" | 1932 | 175 | 280 | ||
Janet | 1955 | 175 | 280 | 175 | 280 |
Camille | 1969 | 175 | 280 | 175 | 280 |
Anita | 1977 | 175 | 280 | 175 | 280 |
David | 1979 | 175 | 280 | 175 | 280 |
Andrew | 1992 | 175 | 280 | 165 | 270 |
Katrina | 2005 | 175 | 280 | ||
Dean | 2007 | 175 | 280 | 175 | 280 |
Felix | 2007 | 175 | 280 | 165 | 270 |
Maria | 2017 | 175 | 280 | 165 | 270 |
Note: Grey shading indicates that the wind speed was not a record, only the highest ranking storms for each category are included here. |
Hurricane Severity Index
Most severe landfalling Atlantic hurricanes in the United States Based on size and intensity for total points on the Hurricane Severity Index[71] | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rank | Hurricane | Year | Intensity | Size | Total |
1 | 4 Carla | 1961 | 17 | 25 | 42 |
2 | 4 Betsy | 1965 | 15 | 25 | 40 |
3 | 5 Camille | 1969 | 22 | 14 | 36 |
4 Opal | 1995 | 11 | 25 | 36 | |
5 Katrina | 2005 | 13 | 23 | 36 | |
6 | 3 Audrey | 1957 | 17 | 16 | 33 |
5 Wilma | 2005 | 12 | 21 | 33 | |
8 | 5 Ivan | 2004 | 12 | 20 | 32 |
9 | 4 Ike | 2008 | 10 | 20 | 30 |
10 | 5 Andrew | 1992 | 16 | 11 | 27 |
Chicago Mercantile Exchange Hurricane Index
Most severe landfalling Atlantic hurricanes in the United States Based on size and intensity for total points on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange Hurricane Index[72] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rank | Hurricane | Year | Landfall | Windspeed at/near landfall (operational) |
Radius of hurricane–force winds at/near landfall |
CMEHI index |
1 | 4 Hugo* | 1989 | South Carolina | 140 mph (220 km/h) | 140 mi (225 km) | 19.3 |
2 | 4 Katrina* | 2005 | Louisiana | 145 mph (230 km/h) | 120 mi (195 km) | 19.0 |
3 | 4 Maria | 2017 | Puerto Rico | 155 mph (250 km/h) | 60 mi (95 km) | 15.8 |
4 | 4 Laura | 2020 | Louisiana | 150 mph (240 km/h) | 60 mi (95 km) | 14.5 |
5 | 3 Fran | 1996 | North Carolina | 115 mph (185 km/h) | 175 mi (280 km) | 14.3 |
6 | 4 Michael | 2018 | Florida | 155 mph (250 km/h) | 45 mi (70 km) | 14.1 |
4 Ian* | 2022 | Florida | 155 mph (250 km/h) | 45 mi (70 km) | 14.1 | |
8 | 4 Ivan | 2004 | Alabama | 130 mph (215 km/h) | 105 mi (170 km) | 13.5 |
4 Ida | 2021 | Louisiana | 150 mph (240 km/h) | 50 mi (80 km) | 13.5 | |
10 | 4 Irma | 2017 | Florida | 130 mph (215 km/h) | 80 mi (130 km) | 11.6 |
Note: * Indicates that the storm made landfall as a hurricane in multiple regions of the U.S., therefore only the highest index is listed |
Fastest intensification
- Fastest intensification from a tropical depression to a hurricane (1-minute sustained surface
- Fastest intensification from a tropical depression to a Category 5 hurricane (1-minute sustained surface winds) – 54 hours
- Fastest intensification from a tropical storm to a Category 5 hurricane (1-minute sustained surface winds) – 24 hours2005 – 70 mph (110 km/h) to 175 mph (275 km/h) – from 0600 UTC October 18 to 0600 UTC October 19[11]
- Maximum 2005 – 975 millibars (28.8 inHg) to 892 millibars (26.3 inHg) – from 1800 UTC October 18 to 0600 UTC October 19[11]
- Maximum pressure drop in 24 hours – 97 mbar2005 – 979 millibars (28.9 inHg) to 882 millibars (26.0 inHg) – from 1200 UTC October 18 to 1200 UTC October 19[11]
Effects
Costliest Atlantic hurricanes
Costliest Atlantic hurricanes | |||
---|---|---|---|
Rank | Hurricane | Season | Damage[nb 10] |
1 | 5 Katrina | 2005 | $125 billion |
4 Harvey | 2017 | ||
3 | 5 Ian | 2022 | $113 billion |
4 | 5 Maria | 2017 | $91.6 billion |
5 | 5 Irma | 2017 | $77.2 billion |
6 | 4 Ida | 2021 | $75.3 billion |
7 | 3 Sandy | 2012 | $68.7 billion |
8 | 4 Ike | 2008 | $38 billion |
9 | 5 Andrew | 1992 | $27.3 billion |
10 | 5 Ivan | 2004 | $26.1 billion |
Deadliest Atlantic hurricanes
Deadliest Atlantic hurricanes | |||
---|---|---|---|
Rank | Hurricane | Season | Fatalities |
1 | ? "Great Hurricane" | 1780 | 22,000–27,501 |
2 | 5 Mitch | 1998 | 11,374+ |
3 | 2 Fifi | 1974 | 8,210–10,000 |
4 | 4 "Galveston" | 1900 | 8,000–12,000 |
5 | 4 Flora | 1963 | 7,193 |
6 | ? "Pointe-à-Pitre" | 1776 | 6,000+ |
7 | 5 "Okeechobee" | 1928 | 4,112+ |
8 | ? "Newfoundland" | 1775 | 4,000–4,163 |
9 | 3 "Monterrey" | 1909 | 4,000 |
10 | 4 "San Ciriaco" | 1899 | 3,855 |
Most tornadoes spawned
Number of tornadoes spawned[73] | |||
---|---|---|---|
Rank | Count | Name | Year |
1 | 120 | 5 Ivan | 2004 |
2 | 115 | 5 Beulah | 1967 |
3 | 103[74] | 4 Frances | 2004 |
4 | 101 | 5 Rita | 2005 |
5 | 57 | 5 Katrina | 2005 |
6 | 54 | 4 Harvey | 2017 |
7 | 50 | TS Fay
|
2008 |
8 | 49 | 4 Gustav | 2008 |
9 | 47 | 4 Georges | 1998 |
10 | 46[75] | TS Lee | 2011 |
Miscellaneous records
Miscellaneous records | |||
---|---|---|---|
Record | Value | Name | Season |
Distance traveled | 6,500 miles (10,500 km)[76] | 3 Alberto | 2000 |
Highest forward speed | 69 mph (111 km/h)[11][77] | TS Six | 1961 |
Largest in diameter | 1,150 miles (1,850 km)[78] | 3 Sandy | 2012 |
Longest duration (non consecutive) | 28 days[11][79][80] | 4 "San Ciriaco" | 1899 |
Longest duration (consecutive) | 27.25 days[11][79][80] | 2 Ginger | 1971 |
Longest duration (at category 5) | 3.6 days[81] | 5 "Cuba" | 1932 |
Northernmost tropical cyclone formation | 42.0°N; 23.0°W [11] | TS Five
|
1952 |
Southernmost tropical cyclone formation | 7.2°N; 23.4°W [11] | 2 Isidore
|
1990 |
Easternmost tropical cyclone formation | 11.0°N, 14.0°W [11] | TS Christine | 1973 |
Westernmost tropical cyclone formation | 22.4°N, 97.4°W [11] | TD Eight
|
2013 |
Worldwide cyclone records set by Atlantic storms
- Costliest tropical cyclone: Hurricane Katrina – 2005 and Hurricane Harvey – 2017 – US$125 billion in damages
- Fastest seafloor current produced by a tropical cyclone: Hurricane Ivan – 2004 – 2.25 m/s (5 mph)[82][83]
- Highest confirmed wave produced by a tropical cyclone: Hurricane Luis – 1995 – 98 feet (30 m)[84]
- Highest forward speed of a tropical cyclone: Tropical Storm Six – 1961 – 69 mph (111 km/h)
- Most tornadoes spawned by a tropical cyclone: Hurricane Ivan – 2004 – 120 confirmed tornadoes[85]
- Smallest tropical cyclone on record: Tropical Storm Marco – 2008 – gale-force winds extended 11.5 mi (18.5 km) from storm center (previous record: Cyclone Tracy 1974 – 30 mi (48 km))
- Smallest tropical cyclone eye on record: Hurricane Wilma – 2005 – diameter 2.3 miles (3.7 km)
See also
Notes
- ^ Hurricanes reaching Category 3 (111 mph (179 km/h)) and higher on the 5-level Saffir–Simpson wind speed scale are considered major hurricanes.[10]
- ^ Although Hurricane Iota in 2020 was operationally analyzed to be a Category 5 hurricane,[17] its peak strength was revised down to Category 4 in the post-season analysis.[18]
- ^ 1954's Hurricane Alice and 2005's Tropical Storm Zeta both formed as tropical depressions on December 30; however, Alice formed around 06:00 UTC, about six hours later than Zeta.[11]
- ^ 1954's Hurricane Alice and 2005's Tropical Storm Zeta both became tropical storms on December 30; however, Alice became a tropical storm around 12:00 UTC, about six hours later than Zeta.[11]
- ^ a b Highest number for month by virtue of being the only season on record to have a storm form during that month.
- Dolly and 2023's Cindyboth formed on June 23; however, Cindy became a tropical storm around 3:00 UTC, about three hours before Dolly.
- ^ 2005's Maria and 2011's Lee both formed on September 2 and each became a tropical storm around 12:00 UTC.
- ^ 2011's Lee and 2005's Maria both formed on September 2 and each became a tropical storm around 12:00 UTC.
- ^ 2005's Ophelia and 2011's Nate both formed on September 7; however, Ophelia became a tropical storm around 06:00 UTC, about 12 hours before Nate.
- ^ All damage figures are in United States dollars, and are not adjusted for inflation.
References
- ^ "North Atlantic Ocean Historical Tropical Cyclone Statistics". Fort Collins, Colorado: Department of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University. Retrieved May 13, 2023.
- ^ "Tropical Cyclone Climatology". Miami, Florida: United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Retrieved August 14, 2013.
- ISBN 0-231-12388-4.
- Bibcode:1968eswc.book.....C. Retrieved December 6, 2020.
- ^ Staff writer (June 13, 1962). "Hurricane Season Upon Us". The Windsor Star. United Press International. Retrieved October 7, 2011.
- . Retrieved June 9, 2014.
- ^ a b "North Atlantic Ocean Historical Tropical Cyclone Statistics". Fort Collins, Colorado: Colorado State University. Retrieved July 18, 2023.
- ^ a b c d e Dorst, Neal (June 1, 2018). "Hurricane Season Information". Frequently Asked Questions About Hurricanes. Miami, Florida: NOAA Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved September 4, 2020.
- ^ a b Landsea, Chris; et al. (June 2013). "Documentation of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones Changes in HURDAT". United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Hurricane Research Division. Retrieved August 14, 2013.
- ^ "Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale". Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved September 4, 2020.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am "Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)" (Database). United States National Hurricane Center. April 5, 2023. Retrieved April 18, 2024. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ "1957 – Hurricane Audrey". hurricanescience.org. University of Rhode Island. Retrieved September 3, 2013.
- ^ NHC Public Affairs (July 20, 2016). "Reanalysis of 1956 to 1960 Atlantic hurricane seasons completed: 10 new tropical storms discovered" (PDF). nhc.noaa.gov. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved September 15, 2020.
- ^ a b Franklin, James L.; Brown, Daniel P. (March 10, 2006). Hurricane Emily (PDF). National Hurricane Center Tropical Cyclone Report (Report). Miami, Florida: United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 24, 2017. Retrieved September 3, 2013.
- ^ Hurricane.com. "Atlantic Hurricane and Tropical Storm Records". Hurricane.com. Archived from the original on March 14, 2006. Retrieved September 22, 2013.
- ^ Chambers, Gillan (December 1999). "Late Hurricanes: a Message for the Region". Environment and development in coastal regions and in small islands. Coast and Beach Stability in the Lesser Antilles. Retrieved September 22, 2013.
- ^ a b Eric Blake. "Hurricane Iota Discussion Number 13". nhc.noaa.gov. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved November 16, 2020.
- ^ Stacy R. Stewart (May 18, 2021). Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Iota (PDF) (Report). National Hurricane Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 9, 2021. Retrieved August 30, 2021.
- ^ Christopher W. Landsea; et al. Documentation of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones Changes in HURDAT. Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved July 12, 2023.
- ^ Courson, Paul (August 26, 2005). "NOAA: More hurricanes to come". CNN. Retrieved September 4, 2020.
- . Retrieved August 14, 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g U.S. NOAA Coastal Service Center – Historical Hurricane Tracks Tool
- ^ Erdman, Jonathan (January 31, 2020). "Yes, There Was Once a February Tropical Storm Off the East Coast". weather.com. The Weather Channel. Retrieved November 16, 2020.
- ^ Erdman, Jonathan (March 8, 2020). "Yes, There Was Once a March Atlantic Hurricane". weather.com. The Weather Channel. Retrieved November 16, 2020.
- ^ "State of the Climate: Hurricanes and Tropical Storms for July 2020". NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. August 2020. Retrieved November 16, 2020.
- ^ Dolce, Chris (October 6, 2020). "All the Records the 2020 Hurricane Season has Broken So Far". weather.com. The Weather Channel. Retrieved November 16, 2020.
- ^ Philip Klotzbach [@philklotzbach] (November 14, 2020). "#Iota is the 3rd Atlantic named storm to form this November, along with Eta and #Theta" (Tweet). Retrieved November 14, 2020 – via Twitter.
- ^ a b Gray, Jennifer (June 2, 2020). "Cristobal becomes the earliest third Atlantic named storm on record". CNN. Retrieved September 1, 2020.
- ^ a b Henson, Bob (June 23, 2023). "Unusual June Tropical Storms Bret and Cindy stir up the Atlantic". New Haven, Connecticut: Yale Climate Connections. Retrieved June 23, 2023.
- ^ Andrew Dockery. "Fifth named storm of the 2021 hurricane season and is now the earliest "E" named storm on record". www.wmbfnews.com. Retrieved 2021-07-01.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Martucci, Joe (August 25, 2020). "Hurricane Laura continues record hurricane season pace, here's the forecast". The Press of Atlantic City. Retrieved August 31, 2020.
- ^ a b Prociv, Kathryn (July 22, 2020). "Tropical Storm Gonzalo forecast to become 2020's first Atlantic hurricane of the year". NBC News. Retrieved September 1, 2020.
- ^ a b c Bellafiore, Sean (August 21, 2020). "Tropical Depression 14 not yet a tropical storm, could threaten Central Texas". Waco, Texas: KWTX News. Retrieved August 28, 2020.
- ^ a b Cappucci, Matthew (September 1, 2020). "Tropical storm Nana nears formation in Caribbean as Atlantic hurricane season stays unusually active". The Washington Post. Retrieved September 1, 2020.
- ^ a b "Tropical Storm Omar, Record Earliest Fifteenth Storm, Tracking Well Off the U.S. East Coast". weather.com. The Weather Channel. September 1, 2020. Retrieved September 3, 2020.
- ^ a b c d Erdman, Jonathan (September 7, 2020). "Tropical Storm Paulette, Record Earliest 16th Storm, Forms in Eastern Atlantic While Tropical Storm Rene is Soon to Follow". weather.com. The Weather Channel. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
- ^ Niles, Nancy; Hauck, Grace; Aretakis, Rachel (September 12, 2020). "Tropical Storm Sally forms as it crosses South Florida; likely to strengthen into hurricane when it reaches Gulf". USA Today Network. Retrieved September 12, 2012.
- ^ Masters, Jeff (September 23, 2021). "Tropical Storm Sam forms in central tropical Atlantic". New Haven Connecticut: Yale Climate Connections. Retrieved September 29, 2021.
- ^ Marchante, Michelle; Harris, Alex (September 14, 2020). "With newly formed Tropical Storm Teddy, NHC tracking five named systems at once". The Miami Herald. Retrieved September 14, 2020.
- ^ Masters, Jeff (September 25, 2021). "Sam rapidly intensifies into a major category 3 hurricane". New Haven Connecticut: Yale Climate Connections. Retrieved September 29, 2021.
- ^ Michals, Chris (September 14, 2020). "Sally takes aim at the Gulf Coast; only one name left for hurricane season". wsls.com. Roanoke, Virginia: WSLS-TV. Retrieved September 14, 2020.
- ^ Masters, Jeff; Henson, Bob (September 30, 2021). "Tropical Storm Victor joins category 4 Hurricane Sam in the Atlantic". New Haven Connecticut: Yale Climate Connections. Retrieved September 30, 2021.
- ^ a b Borenstein, Seth (September 18, 2020). "Running out of storm names, Atlantic season goes Greek". Chattanooga Times Free Press. Chattanooga, Tennessee. AP. Retrieved October 1, 2020.
- ^ a b Bacon, John; Falcon, Meagan (September 20, 2020). "Texas prepares water rescue teams as Tropical Storm Beta threatens 'torrential rainfall'". USA Today. Retrieved May 30, 2021.
- ^ a b Discher, Emma (October 2, 2020). "Tropical Storm Gamma develops over Caribbean Sea; here's the latest forecast". nola.com. New Orleans, Louisiana. Retrieved October 2, 2020.
- ^ a b Morgan, Leigh (October 5, 2020). "Tropical Storm Delta forms and is headed for the Gulf Coast later this week - as a hurricane". al.com. The Birmingham News. Retrieved October 5, 2020.
- ^ a b Masters, Jeff (October 19, 2020). "Tropical Storm Epsilon forms in the central Atlantic". New Haven, Connecticut: Yale Climate Connections. Retrieved October 19, 2020.
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