Management
Part of a series on |
Strategy |
---|
![]() |
Management (or managing) is the administration of organizations, whether businesses, nonprofit organizations, or a government bodies through business administration, nonprofit management, or the political science sub-field of public administration respectively. It is the process of managing the resources of businesses, governments, and other organizations.
Business administration |
---|
Management of a business |
|
Larger organizations generally have three hierarchical levels of managers,[1][need quotation to verify] organized in a pyramid structure:
- Senior management roles include the board of directors and a chief executive officer (CEO) or a president of an organization. They set the strategic goals and policy of the organization and make decisions on how the overall organization will operate. Senior managers are generally executive-level professionals who provide direction to middle management. Compare governance.
- Middle management roles include branch managers, regional managers, department managers, and section managers. They provide direction to front-line managers and communicate the strategic goals and policies of senior management to them.
- Line management roles include supervisors and the front-line team leaders, who oversee the work of regular employees, or volunteers in some voluntary organizations, and provide direction on their work. Line managers often perform the managerial functions that are traditionally considered the core of management. Despite the name, they are usually considered part of the workforce and not part of the organization's management class.
Part of the Politics series |
Politics |
---|
![]() |
Management is taught - both as a theoretical subject as well as its a practical application - across different disciplines at colleges and universities. Prominent major degree-programs in management include
Etymology
The English verb manage has its roots in the fifteenth-century French verb mesnager, which often referred in equestrian language "to hold in hand the reins of a horse".[4] Also the Italian term maneggiare (to handle, especially tools or a horse) is possible. In Spanish, manejar can also mean to rule the horses.[5] These three terms derive from the two Latin words manus (hand) and agere (to act).
The French word for
Definitions
Views on the definition and scope of management include:
- Henri Fayol (1841–1925) stated: "To manage is to forecast and to plan, to organize, to command, to co-ordinate and to control".[8]
- Fredmund Malik (1944– ) defines management as "the transformation of resources into utility".[9]
- Management is included[by whom?] as one of the factors of production – along with machines, materials and money.
- Ghislain Deslandes defines management as "a vulnerable force, under pressure to achieve results and endowed with the triple power of constraint, imitation, and imagination, operating on subjective, interpersonal, institutional and environmental levels".[10]
- Peter Drucker (1909–2005) saw the basic task of management as twofold: marketing and innovation. Nevertheless, innovation is also linked to marketing (product innovation is a central strategic marketing issue).[citation needed] Drucker identifies marketing as a key essence for business success, but management and marketing are generally understood[by whom?] as two different branches of business administration knowledge.
Theoretical scope
Management involves identifying the
- planning (forecasting)
- organizing
- commanding
- coordinating
- controlling
In another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), allegedly defined management as "the art of getting things done through people".[19] She described management as a philosophy.[20][need quotation to verify]
Critics,[
One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business administration" and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, for example in charities and in the public sector. More broadly, every organization must "manage" its work, people, processes, technology, etc. to maximize effectiveness.[citation needed] Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management as "business schools". Some such institutions (such as the Harvard Business School) use that name, while others (such as the Yale School of Management) employ the broader term "management".
English speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a corporation.[22] Historically this use of the term often contrasted with the term labor – referring to those being managed.[23]
Levels
A common management structure of organizations includes three management levels: low-level, middle-level, and top-level managers. Low-level managers manage the work of non-managerial individuals who are directly involved with the production or creation of the organization's products. Low-level managers are often called supervisors, but may also be called line managers, office managers, or even foremen. Middle managers include all levels of management between the low level and the top level of the organization. These managers manage the work of low-level managers and may have titles such as department head, project leader, plant manager, or division manager. Top managers are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing the plans and goals that affect the entire organization. These individuals typically have titles such as executive vice president, president, managing director, chief operating officer, chief executive officer, or board chairman.
These managers are classified in a
Top management
The top or senior layer of management is a small group which consists of the
The board of directors is typically primarily composed of non-executives who owe a
Helpful skills for top management vary by the type of organization but typically include a broad understanding of competition, world economies, and politics.[27] In addition, the CEO is responsible for implementing and determining (within the board's framework) the broad policies of the organization. Executive management accomplishes the day-to-day details, including instructions for the preparation of department budgets, procedures, and schedules; appointment of middle-level executives such as department managers; coordination of departments; media and governmental relations; and shareholder communication.
Middle management
Consist of general managers, branch managers and department managers. They are accountable to the top management for their department's function. They devote more time to organizational and directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing organizational plans in conformance with the company's policies and the top management's objectives, defining and discussing information and policies from top management to lower management, and most importantly, inspiring and providing guidance to lower-level managers towards better performance.
Middle management is the midway management of a categorized organization, being secondary to the senior management but above the deepest levels of operational members. An operational manager may be well-thought-out by middle management or may be categorized as a non-management operator, liable to the policy of the specific organization. The efficiency of the middle level is vital in any organization since it bridges the gap between top-level and bottom-level staff.
Their functions include:
- Designing and implementing effective group and inter-group work and information systems
- Defining and monitoring group-level performance indicators
- Diagnosing and resolving problems within and among workgroups
- Designing and implementing reward systems that support cooperative behavior, as well as making decisions and sharing ideas with top managers
Line management
Line managers include supervisors, section leaders, forepersons, and team leaders. They focus on controlling and directing regular employees. They are usually responsible for assigning employees tasks, guiding and supervising employees on day-to-day activities, ensuring the quality and quantity of production and/or service, making recommendations and suggestions to employees on their work, and channeling employee concerns that they cannot resolve to mid-level managers or other administrators. Low-level or "front-line" managers also act as role models for their employees. In some types of work, front-line managers may also do some of the same tasks that employees do, at least some of the time. For example, in some restaurants, the front-line managers will also serve customers during a very busy period of the day. In general, line managers are considered part of the workforce and not part of the organization's proper management despite performing traditional management functions.
Front-line managers typically provide:
- Training for new employees
- Basic supervision
- Motivation
- Performance feedback and guidance
Some front-line managers may also provide career planning for employees who aim to rise within the organization.
Training and education
Colleges and universities around the world offer bachelor's degrees, graduate degrees, diplomas, and certificates in management; generally within their colleges of business, business schools, or faculty of management but also in other related departments.
Higher education has been characterized as a necessary factor in the managerial revolution in the 20th century.[28]
Requirement
While some professions require academic credentials in order to work in the profession (e.g., law, medicine, and engineering, which require, respectively the
Undergraduate
At the undergraduate level, the most common business programs are the Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.). These typically comprise a four-year program designed to give students an overview of the role of managers in planning and directing within an organization. Course topics include accounting, financial management, statistics, marketing, strategy, and other related areas.
Many other undergraduate degrees include the study of management, such as Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees with a major in business administration or management and the Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BS) in political science (PoliSci) with a concentration in public administration or the Bachelor of Public Administration (B.P.A), a degree designed for individuals aiming to work as bureaucrats in the government jobs. Many colleges and universities also offer certificates and diplomas in business administration or management, which typically require one to two years of full-time study.
To manage technological areas, one often needs an undergraduate degree in a STEM area.
Graduate
At the graduate level students aiming at careers as managers or executives may choose to specialize in major subareas of management or business administration such as
A Master of Business Administration (MBA) is the most popular professional degree at the master's level and can be obtained from many universities in the United States. MBA programs provide further education in management and leadership for graduate students. Other master's degrees in business and management include Master of Management (MM) and the Master of Science (M.Sc.) in business administration or management, which is typically taken by students aiming to become researchers or professors.
There are also specialized master's degrees in administration for individuals aiming at careers outside of business, such as the Master of Public Administration (MPA) degree (also offered as a Master of Arts or Master of Science in public administration in some universities), for students aiming to become managers or executives in the public service and the Master of Health Administration, for students aiming to become managers or executives in the health care and hospital sector.
Management doctorates are the most advanced
Good practices
While management trends can change fast, the long-term trend in management has been defined by a market embracing diversity and a rising service industry. Managers are currently being trained to encourage greater
Good practices identified for managers include "walking the shop floor",
Evidence-based management
History
Some see management as a late-modern (in the sense of late
- An organization is more stable if members have the right to express their differences and solve their conflicts within it.
- While one person can begin an organization, "it is lasting when it is left in the care of many and when many desire to maintain it".
- A weak manager can follow a strong one, but not another weak one, and maintain authority.
- A manager seeking to change an established organization "should retain at least a shadow of the ancient customs".
With the changing workplaces of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries, military theory and practice contributed approaches to managing the newly popular factories.[39]
Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before the Industrial Revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with the growing size and complexity of organizations, a distinction between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties, or groups of shareholders) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common.
Early writing
The field of management originated in ancient China,
Various ancient and medieval civilizations produced "
Written in 1776 by Adam Smith, a Scottish moral philosopher, The Wealth of Nations discussed efficient organization of work through division of labour.[55] Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of
19th century
Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723–1790) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) provided a theoretical background to resource allocation, production (economics), and pricing issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (1765–1825), James Watt (1736–1819), and Matthew Boulton (1728–1809) developed elements of technical production such as standardization, quality-control procedures, cost-accounting, interchangeability of parts, and work-planning. Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-mass production[56] before wage slavery eclipsed chattel slavery.
Salaried managers as an identifiable group first became prominent in the late 19th century.[57] As large corporations began to overshadow small family businesses the need for personnel management positions became more necessary.[58] Businesses grew into large corporations and the need for clerks, bookkeepers, secretaries and managers expanded. The demand for trained managers led college and university administrators to consider and move forward with plans to create the first schools of business on their campuses.
20th century
At the turn of the twentieth century, the need for skilled and trained managers had become increasingly apparent. The demand occurred as personnel departments began to expand rapidly. In 1915, less than one in twenty manufacturing firms had a dedicated personnel department. By 1929 that number had grown to over one-third.[59] Formal management education became standardized at colleges and universities.[60] Colleges and universities capitalized on the needs of corporations by forming business schools and corporate placement departments.[61] This shift toward formal business education marked the creation of a corporate elite in the US.
By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see
The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920.[
H. Dodge,
Some of the later 20th-century developments include the
As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for
Business management includes the following branches:[citation needed]
- financial management
- human resource management
- Management cybernetics
- management information systems)
- marketing management
- operations management and production management
- strategic management
21st century
Branches of management theory also exist relating to
Many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from business-ethics viewpoints, critical management studies, and anti-corporate activism.
As one consequence, workplace democracy (sometimes referred to as Workers' self-management) has become both more common and more advocated, in some places distributing all management functions among workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any current political issue and may occur more naturally than does a command hierarchy.
Nature of work
In profitable organizations, management's primary function is the satisfaction of a range of stakeholders. This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable cost (for customers), and providing great employment opportunities for employees. In case of nonprofit management, one of the main functions is, keeping the faith of donors. In most models of management and governance, shareholders vote for the board of directors, and the board then hires senior management. Some organizations have experimented with other methods (such as employee-voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers, but this is rare.
Topics
Basics
According to Fayol, management operates through five basic functions: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling.
- Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the future and generating action plans (deciding in advance).
- Organizing (or staffing): Making sure the human and nonhuman resources are put into place.[65]
- Commanding (or leading): Determining what must be done in a situation and getting people to do it.
- Coordinating: Creating a structure through which an organization's goals can be accomplished.
- Controlling: Checking progress against plans.
Basic roles
- Interpersonal: roles that involve coordination and interaction with employees.
Figurehead, leader, liaison
- Informational: roles that involve handling, sharing, and analyzing information.
Nerve centre, disseminator, spokesperson
- Decision: roles that require decision-making.
Entrepreneur, negotiator, allocator, disturbance handler
Skills
Management skills include:
- Political: used to build a power base and to establish connections.
- motivate, mentor and delegate.
- Diagnostic: ability to visualize appropriate responses to a situation.
- Leadership: ability to communicate a vision and inspire people to embrace that vision.
- cross-cultural leadership: the ability to understand the effects of culture on leadership style.
- Behavioural: perception towards others, conflict resolution, time management, self-improvement, stress management and resilience, patience, clear communication.
Implementation of policies and strategies
- All policies and strategies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff.
- Managers must understand where and how they can implement their policies and strategies.
- An action plan must be devised for each department.
- Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly.
- Contingency plans must be devised in case the environment changes.
- Top-level managers should carry out regular progress assessments.
- The business requires team spirit and a good environment.
- The missions, objectives, strengths, and weaknesses of each department must be analyzed to determine their roles in achieving the business's mission.
- The forecasting method develops a reliable picture of the business's future environment.
- A planning unit must be created to ensure that all plans are consistent and that policies and strategies are aimed at achieving the same mission and objectives.
Policies and strategies in the planning process
- They give mid and lower-level managers a good idea of the future plans for each department in an organization.
- A framework is created whereby plans and decisions are made.
- Mid and lower-level management may add their own plans to the business's strategies.
See also
- Certificate in Management Studies
- Engineering management
- Outline of management
- Outline of business management
References
- OCLC 227205643.
- ^ Waring, S.P., 2016. Taylorism Transformed: Scientific management theory since 1945. UNC Press Books.
- ^ "What Is Evidence-Based Management? – Center for Evidence-Based Management". Retrieved 2022-03-03.
- ISBN 978-2-311-40094-6.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ Real Academia Española, Diccionario de la lengua española. "manejar | Diccionario de la lengua española" (in Spanish).
- ^ Xenophon (1734). "Oikonomikos. Oder Xenophon vom Haus-Wesen, aus der Griechischen- in die Teutsche Sprache übersetzet von Barthold Henrich Brockes, dem jüngern. Mit einer Vorrede S.T. Herrn Jo. Alb. Fabricii ... Nebst den wenigen Stücken, die aus der Lateinischen Uebersetzung Ciceronis noch übrig".
- ^ "Home : Oxford English Dictionary".
- ISBN 978-93-5062-099-1.
- ^ Ann Viola Ulvin
- ^ Deslandes G., (2014), “Management in Xenophon's Philosophy: a Retrospective Analysis”, 38th Annual Research Conference, Philosophy of Management, 2014, July 14–16, Chicago
- ^
Prabbal Frank attempts to make a subtle distinction between management and manipulation: Frank, Prabbal (2007). People Manipulation: A Positive Approach (2 ed.). New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd (published 2009). pp. 3–7. ISBN 978-81-207-4352-6. Retrieved 2015-09-05.
There is a difference between management and manipulation. The difference is thin [...] If management is handling, then manipulation is skillful handling. In short, manipulation is skillful management. [...] Manipulation is in essence leveraged management. [...] It is an alive thing while management is a dead concept. It requires a proactive approach rather than a reactive approach. [...] People cannot be managed.
- ISSN 1097-0266.
- .
- JSTOR 258173.
- ^ Julie Zink, Ph D.; Zink, Julie (2017). "Chapter 1: Introducing Organizational Communication".
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ "Managerial Skills - 3 Types of Skills Each Manager Will Need". Entrepreneurs Box. 2021-06-06. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ "Management is Universal Process and Phenomenon (Explained)". www.iedunote.com. 2018-06-12. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
- ^ Administration industrielle et générale – prévoyance organization – commandment, coordination – contrôle, Paris: Dunod, 1966
- ^
Jones, Norman L. (2013-10-02). "Chapter Two: Of Poetry and Politics: The Managerial Culture of Sixteenth-Century England". In Kaufman, Peter Iver (ed.). Leadership and Elizabethan Culture. Jepson Studies in Leadership. Palgrave Macmillan (published 2013). p. 17. ISBN 978-1-137-34029-0. Retrieved 2015-08-29.
Mary Parker Follett, the 'prophet of management' reputedly defined management as the 'art of getting things done through people.' [...] Whether or not she said it, Follett describes the attributes of dynamic management as being coactive rather than coercive.
- ^ Vocational Business: Training, Developing and Motivating People by Richard Barrett – Business & Economics – 2003. p. 51.
- ^
Compare: Holmes, Leonard (2012-11-28). The Dominance of Management: A Participatory Critique. Voices in Development Management. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. (published 2012). p. 20. ISBN 978-1-4094-8866-8. Retrieved 2015-08-29.
Lupton's (1983: 17) notion that management is 'what managers do during their working hours', if valid, could only apply to descriptive conceptualizations of management, where 'management' is effectively synonymous with 'managing', and where 'managing' refers to an activity, or set of activities carried out by managers.
- ^ Harper, Douglas. "management". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2015-08-29. – "Meaning 'governing body' (originally of a theater) is from 1739."
- ^
See for examples Melling, Joseph; McKinlay, Alan, eds. (1996). Management, Labour, and Industrial Politics in Modern Europe: The Quest for Productivity Growth During the Twentieth Century. Edward Elgar. ISBN 978-1-85898-016-4. Retrieved 2015-08-29.
- ^ Board of Directors: Duties & Liabilities Archived 2014-03-24 at the Wayback Machine. Stanford Graduate School of Business.
- ^ DeMars L. (2006). Heavy Vetting: Boards of directors now want to talk to would-be CFOs — and vice versa. CFO Magazine.
- ^ 2013 CEO Performance Evaluation Survey. Stanford Graduate School of Business.
- ^ Kleiman, Lawrence S. (2010), Management and Executive Development, Reference for Business: Encyclopedia of Business, accessed on 1 November 2024
- ISSN 0034-6535.
- ^ "AOM Placement Presentations".
- ISSN 0021-8456.
- ^ "The Role of HR in Uncertain Times" (PDF). Economist Intelligence Unit. Retrieved 18 January 2015.
- ^ Verity, J., Five benefits of walking the 'shop floor', People Puzzles, accessed 11 March 2023
- ^ Kotter, J., The 8-Step Process for Leading Change, accessed 11 March 2023
- ^ Britt, H., 14 Ways To Improve Work-Life Balance, accessed 11 March 2023
- ISBN 978-1-59139-862-2.
- PMID 17551934.
- PMID 23647856.
- ^ Waring, S.P., 2016, Taylorism transformed: Scientific management theory since 1945. UNC Press Books.
- ^
ISBN 978-0-520-04490-6. Retrieved 2013-12-29.
In the army barracks, and in the mass co-ordination of men on the battlefield (epitomized by the military innovations of Prince Maurice of Orange and Nassau in the sixteenth century) are to be found the prototype of the regimentation of the factory – as both Marx and Weber noted.
- ^ Ewan Ferlie, Laurence E. Lynn, Christopher Pollitt (2005) The Oxford Handbook of Public Management, p.30.
- ^ Kazin, Edwards, and Rothman (2010), 142. One of the oldest examples of a merit-based civil service system existed' in the imperial bureaucracy of China.
- Tan, Chung; Geng, Yinzheng (2005). India and China: twenty centuries of civilization interaction and vibrations. University of Michigan Press. p. 128.
China not only produced the world's first "bureaucracy", but also the world's first "meritocracy"
- Konner, Melvin (2003). Unsettled: an anthropology of the Jews. Viking Compass. p. 217. ISBN 9780670032440.
China is the world's oldest meritocracy
- Tucker, Mary Evelyn (2009). "Touching the Depths of Things: Cultivating Nature in East Asia". Ecology and the Environment: Perspectives from the Humanities: 51.
To staff these institutions, they created the oldest meritocracy in the world, in which government appointments were based on civil service examinations that drew on the values of the Confucian Classics
- Tan, Chung; Geng, Yinzheng (2005). India and China: twenty centuries of civilization interaction and vibrations. University of Michigan Press. p. 128.
- ISBN 978-0-07-302743-2.
- ^ Creel, 1974 pp. 4–5 Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C.
- ^ Creel, What Is Taoism?, 94
- Creel, 1974 p.4, 119 Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C.
- Creel 1964: 155–6
- Herrlee G. Creel, 1974 p.119. Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1.
- Paul R. Goldin, p.16 Persistent Misconceptions about Chinese Legalism. https://www.academia.edu/24999390/Persistent_Misconceptions_about_Chinese_Legalism_
- ^ Ewan Ferlie, Laurence E. Lynn, Christopher Pollitt 2005 p.30, The Oxford Handbook of Public Management
- ^ Herrlee G. Creel, 1974 p.119. "Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration", Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1.
- ^ Creel, "The Origins of Statecraft in China, I", The Western Chou Empire, Chicago, pp.9–27
- ^ Otto B. Van der Sprenkel, "Max Weber on China", History and Theory 3 (1964), 357.
- ^ a b Bodde, Derke. "China: A Teaching Workbook". Columbia University.
- ^ Full text of the Northcote-Trevelyan Report Archived 22 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Walker, David (2003-07-09). "Fair game". The Guardian. London, UK. Retrieved 2003-07-09.
- ISBN 0822974738.
- ISBN 0820323624.
- ^ Griffin, Ricky W. CUSTOM Management: Principles and Practices, International Edition, 11th Edition. Cengage Learning UK, 08/2014
- ^ ISBN 978-0-07-302743-2.
- ^
ISBN 9780674988576. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
- ^
ISBN 978-1-4008-3086-2. Retrieved 2013-08-24.
When salaried managers first appeared in the large corporations of the late nineteenth century, it was not obvious who they were, what they did, or why they should be entrusted with the task of running corporations.
- S2CID 149037078.
- ^ Jacoby, S.M. (1985). "Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transformation of Work in American Industry, 1900-1945". Columbia University Press.
- ^ Cruikshank, L (1987). "A Delicate Experiment: The Harvard Business School, 1908-1945". Harvard Business School Press.
- S2CID 149037078.
- ^ Gilbreth, Lillian Moller. The Psychology of Management: The Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching and Installing Methods of Least Waste – via Internet Archive.
- ^
Legge, David; Stanton, Pauline; Smyth, Anne (October 2005). "Learning management (and managing your own learning)". In Harris, Mary G. (ed.). Managing Health Services: Concepts and Practice. Marrickville, NSW: Elsevier Australia (published 2006). p. 13. ISBN 978-0-7295-3759-9. Retrieved 2014-07-11.
The manager as bureaucrat is the guardian of roles, rules, and relationships; his or her style of management relies heavily on working according to the book. In the Weberian tradition, managers are necessary to coordinate the different roles that contribute to the production process and to mediate communication from the head office to the shop floor and back. This style of management assumes a world view in which the bureaucratic role is seen as separate from, and taking precedence over, other constructions of self (including the obligations of citizenship), at least for the working day.
- ^
ISBN 9780394560618. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
- ISBN 978-1-317-31939-9.
External links
- Online books, and library resources in your library and in other libraries about Management
Media related to Management at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Management at Wikiquote