Passiflora

Passiflora
Passiflora incarnata
P. quadrangularis unripe fruit
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Clade:	Angiosperms
Clade:	Eudicots
Clade:	Rosids
Order:	Malpighiales
Family:	Passifloraceae
Subfamily:	Passifloroideae
Tribe:	Passifloreae
Genus:	Passiflora L.
Type species
Passiflora incarnata L.[1]
Species
About 550, see list
Synonyms[2]
List Decaloba M.Roem. Anthactinia Bory Asephananthes DC. Astephananthes Bory Astrophea Rchb. Baldwinia Raf. Blephistelma Raf. Ceratosepalum Oerst. Cieca Medik. Disemma Labill. Distephana ( M.Roem. Distephia DC. Dysosmia M.Roem. Erndelia Neck. Granadilla Mill. Hollrungia K.Schum. Lortetia Ser. Macrophora Raf. Meioperis Raf. Monactineirma Bory Murucuia Mill. Odostelma Raf. Pentaria M.Roem. Peremis Raf. Pericodia Raf. Poggendorffia H.Karst. Psilanthus ( M.Roem. Rathea H.Karst. Senapea Aubl. Synactila Raf. Tacsonia Juss. Tetrapathaea Rchb. Tetrastylis Barb.Rodr. Tripsilina Raf. Xerogona Raf.

Passiflora, known also as the passion flowers or passion vines, is a genus of about 550 species of flowering plants, the type genus of the family Passifloraceae.

Description

Vegetative characteristics

They are mostly

Passion flowers produce regular and usually showy flowers with a distinctive corona. There can be as many as eight coronal series, as in the case of P. xiikzodz.^[3] The flower is pentamerous and ripens into an indehiscent fruit with numerous seeds.

Distribution

Passiflora has a largely

Wild water lemon (P. foetida) bracts with insect-catching hairs.

The sword-billed hummingbird (Ensifera ensifera) is adapted to feed on Passiflora mixta and similar flowers.

An introduced Passiflora in the Canary Islands.

Passiflora foetida in Tumkur, India

Red colored passion flower in Mysore, India

Passion flowers have floral structures adapted for biotic pollination. Pollinators of Passiflora include bumblebees, carpenter bees (e.g., Xylocopa sonorina), wasps, bats, and hummingbirds (especially hermits such as Phaethornis); some others are additionally capable of self-pollination. Passiflora often exhibit high levels of pollinator specificity, which has led to frequent coevolution across the genus. The sword-billed hummingbird (Ensifera ensifera) is a notable example: it, with its immensely elongated bill, is the sole pollinator of 37 species of high Andean Passiflora in the supersection Tacsonia.^[6]

The leaves are used for feeding by the larvae of a number of species of Lepidoptera. Famously, they are exclusively targeted by many butterfly species of the tribe Heliconiini. The many defensive adaptations visible on Passiflora include diverse leaf shapes (which help disguise their identity), colored nubs (which mimic butterfly eggs and can deter Heliconians from ovipositing on a seemingly crowded leaf), extrafloral nectaries, trichomes, variegation, and chemical defenses.^[7] These, combined with adaptations on the part of the butterflies, were important in the foundation of coevolutionary theory.^[8][9]

Recent studies have shown that passiflora both grow faster and protect themselves better in high-nitrogen soils. In low-nitrogen environments, passiflora focus on growth rather than defense and are more vulnerable to herbivores.^[10]

The following lepidoptera larvae are known to feed on Passiflora:

• Longwing
  butterflies (Heliconiinae
  )
  • Cydno longwing (Heliconius cydno), one of few Heliconians to feed on multiple species of Passiflora^[11]
  • Maypop
    (P. incarnata)
  • American Sara longwing (Heliconius sara)
  • Red postman (Heliconius erato)
  • Asian
    leopard lacewing
    (Cethosia cyane).
  • Postman butterfly (Heliconius melpomene) prefer P. menispermifolia and P. oerstedii
  • corky-stemmed passion flower (P. suberosa
    )
  • Banded orange (Dryadula phaetusa) feed on P. tetrastylis
  • Julia butterfly (Dryas iulia) feed on yellow passion flower and P. affinis
• Swift moth Cibyra serta
• Tawny Coster (Acraea terpsicore) feed on Passiflora edulis,^[15] Passiflora foetida^[15] and Passiflora subpeltata^[15]

The generally high pollinator and parasite specificity in Passiflora may have led to the tremendous morphological variation in the genus. It is thought to have among the highest foliar diversity among all plant genera,^[16] with leaf shapes ranging from unlobed to five-lobed frequently found on the same plant.^[17] Coevolution can be a major driver of speciation, and may be responsible for the radiation of certain clades of Passiflora such as Tacsonia.

The

A number of species of Passiflora are cultivated outside their natural range for both their flowers and fruit. Hundreds of hybrids have been named; hybridizing is currently being done extensively for flowers, foliage and fruit. The following hybrids and cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:

• 'Amethyst'^[19]
• P. × exoniensis^[20] (Exeter passion flower)
• P. × violacea^[21]

During the

Many cool-growing Passiflora from the Andes Mountains can be grown successfully for their beautiful flowers and fruit in cooler Mediterranean climates, such as the Monterey Bay and San Francisco in California and along the western coast of the U.S. into Canada. One blue passion flower or hybrid even grew to large size at Malmö Central Station in Sweden.^[22]

Passion flowers have been a subject of studies investigating

Most species have round or elongated edible fruit from 50 to 200 millimetres (2 to 8 in) long and 25–50 mm (1–2 in) across, depending upon the species or cultivar.

• The
  variety of flavicarpa, but seems to be more distinct.^{[citation needed}
  ]
• Sweet granadilla (P. ligularis) is another widely grown species. In large parts of Africa and Australia it is the plant called "passionfruit": confusingly, in South African
  English the latter species is more often called granadilla (without an adjective). Its fruit is somewhat intermediate between the two sold as P. edulis.
• Maypop (P. incarnata), a common species in the southeastern US. This is a subtropical representative of this mostly tropical family. However, unlike the more tropical cousins, this particular species is hardy enough to withstand the cold down to −20 °C (−4 °F) before its roots die (it is native as far north as Pennsylvania and has been cultivated as far north as Boston and Chicago.) The fruit is sweet, yellowish, and roughly the size of a chicken's egg; it enjoys some popularity as a native plant with edible fruit and few pests
  .
• sweet calabash (P. maliformis) are Passiflora species locally famed for their fruit,^[24] but not widely known elsewhere as of 2008^[update].^{[citation needed}
  ]
• The blue passionflower (Passiflora caerulea) produces bright orange fruit with numerous seeds. While the fruit is edible, it is often described as being bland in comparison to other edible passionfruit, or with a flavour vaguely similar to blackberries.^[25]
• Wild maracuja are the fruit of P. foetida, which are popular in Southeast Asia
  .
• Banana passionfruits are the very elongated fruits of P. tripartita var. mollissima and P. tarminiana. These are locally eaten, but their invasive properties make them a poor choice to grow outside of their native range.^[26][27]

Ayahuasca analog

A native source of

Passionflower is classified as

food ingredient in the United States.^[31]

Adverse effects

Passion flower is not recommended during pregnancy because it may induce contractions.

heart rhythms, asthma, or rhinitis.^[29][30]

Chemistry

Chrysin, a commercially important flavone found in the blue passion flower, P. caerulea

Harman, a harmala alkaloid found in many species of Passiflora

Many species of Passiflora have been found to contain

beta-carboline harmala alkaloids,^[30][32][33] some of which are MAO inhibitors. The flower and fruit have only traces of these chemicals, but the leaves and the roots often contain more.^[33] The most common of these alkaloids is harman, but harmaline, harmalol, harmine, and harmol are also present.^[30][32] The species known to bear such alkaloids include: P. actinia, P. alata (winged-stem passion flower), P. alba, P. bryonioides (cupped passion flower), P. caerulea (blue passion flower), P. capsularis, P. decaisneana, P. edulis (passion fruit), P. eichleriana, P. foetida (stinking passion flower), P. incarnata (maypop), P. quadrangularis (giant granadilla), P. suberosa, P. subpeltata and P. warmingii.^[32]

Other compounds found in passion flowers are

blue passion flower (P. caerulea), and perhaps others contain the flavone chrysin. Also documented to occur at least in some Passiflora in quantity are the hydrocarbon nonacosane and the anthocyanidin pelargonidin-3-diglycoside.^[30][32][34]

The genus is rich in

phenolase.^[30][32]

Etymology and names

Blue passion flower

(P. caerulea) showing most elements of the Christian symbolism

The passion in passion flower refers to

the passion of Jesus in Christian theology;^[35] the word passion comes from the Latin passio, meaning 'suffering'. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish Christian missionaries adopted the unique physical structures of this plant, particularly the numbers of its various flower parts, as symbols of the last days of Jesus and especially his crucifixion:^[36]

• The pointed tips of the leaves were taken to represent the Holy Lance.
• The tendrils represent the whips used in the flagellation of Christ.
• The ten
  St. Peter, who denied Jesus three times, and Judas Iscariot
  , who betrayed him).
• The flower's radial filaments, which can number more than a hundred and vary from flower to flower, represent the crown of thorns.
• The
  ovary with its receptacle represents the Holy Grail
  .
• The three
  anthers below them five hammers or five wounds
  (four by the nails and one by the lance).
• The blue and white colors of many species' flowers represent Heaven and Purity.
• In addition, the flower is open for three days, symbolising the three years of Jesus' ministry.^[37]

The flower has been given names related to this symbolism throughout Europe since the 15th century. In Spain, it is known as espina de Cristo ('thorn of Christ'). Older Germanic names^[38] include Christus-Krone ('Christ's crown'), Christus-Strauss ('Christ's bouquet'),^[39] Dorn-Krone ('crown of thorns'), Jesus-Lijden ('Jesus' passion'), Marter ('passion')^[40] or Muttergottes-Stern ('Mother of God's star').^[41]

Outside the Roman Catholic heartland, the regularly shaped flowers have reminded people of the face of a

shoelace, and liko means 'to spring forth leave'.^[43]

In India, it is known as Krishnakamala because of its dark violet blue colour which resembles Bhagwan Krishna.

Taxonomy

See also: List of Passiflora species

Passiflora is the most species rich genus of both the family Passifloraceae and the tribe Passifloreae. With over 550 species, an extensive hierarchy of infrageneric ranks is required to represent the relationships of the species. The infrageneric classification of Passiflora not only uses the widely used ranks of subgenus, section and series, but also the rank of supersection.

The New World species of Passiflora were first divided among 22 subgenera by Killip (1938) in the first monograph of the genus.^[16] More recent work has reduced these to 4, which are commonly accepted today (in order from most basally to most recently branching):^[44]

• Astrophea (Americas, ~60 species), trees and shrubs with simple, unlobed leaves
• Passiflora (Americas, ~250 species), woody vines with large flowers and elaborate
  corolla
• Deidamioides (Americas, 13 species), woody or herbaceous vines
• Decaloba (Americas, Asia and Australasia, ~230 species), herbaceous vines with palmately veined leaves

Some studies have shown that the segregate Old World genera

Tetrapathaea are nested within Passiflora, and form a fifth subgenus (Tetrapathaea).^[45] Other studies support the current four subgenus classification.^[46]

Relationships below the subgenus level are not known with certainty and are an active area of research. The Old World species form two clades – supersection Disemma (part of subgenus Decaloba) and subgenus Tetrapathaea. The former is composed of 21 species divided into sections Disemma (three Australian species), Holrungiella (one New Guinean species) and Octandranthus (seventeen south and east Asian species).[47]

The remaining (New World) species of subgenus Decaloba are divided into seven supersections. Supersection Pterosperma includes four species from Central America and southern Mexico. Supersection Hahniopathanthus includes five species from Central America, Mexico and northernmost South America. Supersection Cicea includes nineteen species, with apetalous flowers. Supersection Bryonioides includes twenty-one species, with a distribution centered on Mexico. Supersection Auriculata includes eight species from South America, one of which is also found in Central America. Supersection Multiflora includes nineteen species. Supersection Decaloba includes 123 species.^[48]

Gallery

• 
  Passiflora 'Incense', a hybrid of the Brazilian species P. cincinnata and the American species P. incarnata.
• 
  tetraploid

  selection of P. caerulea.

See also

• List of culinary fruits

References

1. ^ Passiflora | International Plant Names Index. (n.d.). Retrieved January 8, 2024, from https://www.ipni.org/n/328300-2
2. ^ "Passiflora L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
3. ^ ^{a b} Ulmer, Torsten; McDougal, John M. (2004). Passiflora - Passion Flowers of the World. Portland: Timber Press. pp. 158–159.
4. S2CID 85840835
   .
5. ^ ^{a b} Sanz-Elorza, M.; Dana, E.; Sobrino, E. (2001). "Listado de plantas alóctonas invasoras reales y potenciales en España". Lazaroa. 22. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
6. PMID 25274372
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8. JSTOR 2406212
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10. ISSN 0269-8463
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12. doi:10.21273/HORTSCI.30.5.1112
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13. S2CID 248733989
    . Retrieved 25 October 2017.
14. ^ Soule, J.A. 2012. Butterfly Gardening in Southern Arizona. Tierra del Soule Press, Tucson, AZ
15. ^
    ISSN 0974-7907
    .
16. ^ ^{a b} Killip, E.P. (1938). The American Species of Passifloraceae. Chicago, US: Field Museum of Natural History.
17. PMID 31245674
    .
18. ^ Radhamani et al. (1995)
19. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Passiflora 'Amethyst' AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
20. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Passiflora × exoniensis AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
21. ^ "RHS Plant Selector Passiflora × violacea AGM / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
22. ^ Petersen (1966)
23. ^ E.g. Hansen et al. (2006)
24. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Granadilla" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 336.
25. ^ "Passiflora caerulea (Blue Passion Flower)". Gardenia.net. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
26. ^ Smith, Clifford W. "Impact of Alien Plants on Hawai'i's Native Biota". University of Hawaii. Archived from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
27. ^ The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health and the National Park Service (17 February 2011). "Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States". Retrieved 8 March 2011.
28. ISBN 9783764351656
    .
29. ^ ^{a b c d e f} "Passionflower". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. 1 September 2016. Retrieved 30 October 2019.
30. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} "Passion flower". Drugs.com. 1 July 2018. Retrieved 30 October 2019.
31. ^ "Permitted Flavoring Agents and Related Substances; In: Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21". US Food and Drug Administration. 1 April 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2019.
32. ^ ^{a b c d e} Duke (2008)
33. ^
    ISBN 978-1461745815
    .
34. ^ Dhawan, et al. (2002)
35. ^ Kostka, Arun Oswin. "Flowers in Christian Symbolism".
36. ISBN 978-1-4930-1459-0
    .
37. ^ Brewer, Ebenezer Cobham. The Wordsworth Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (2001 ed.). Wordsworth Reference. p. 826.
38. ^ Marzell (1927)
39. ^ "Christ's flower" is a mistranslation of Marzell (1927)
40. ^ "Martyr" is a mistranslation of Marzell (1927)
41. ^ Muttergottes-Schuzchen (or -Schurzchen) is a nonsensical misreading of Marzell (1927)
42. University of Hawaii Press
    . Retrieved 2 November 2014.
43. ^ Pukui et al. (1992)
44. ^ Feuillet, C.; MacDougal, J. (2004). "A new infrageneric classification of Passiflora L. (Passifloraceae)". Passiflora. 13 (2): 34–35, 37–38.
45. S2CID 86038282
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46. S2CID 4820527
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47. ^ Shawn Elizabeth Krosnick, PhD thesis, Phylogenetic relationships and patterns of morphological evolution in the Old Word species of Passiflora (subgenus Decaloba: supersection Disemma and subgenus Tetrapathaea) Archived 20 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
48. ^ "MBG: Research: Passiflora Research Network". mobot.org.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Passiflora.

New International Encyclopedia article "Passion-flower

".

• "Passiflora" at the Encyclopedia of Life
• The Passiflora Society International
• Killip, The American Species of Passifloraceae, Fieldiana, Bot. 19 (1938)
• Passiflora online
• Passiflora edulis Archived 5 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
• Passiflora Picture Gallery
• Chilean Passiflora pictures
• A list of Heliconius Butterflies and the Passiflora species their larvae consume