Basiliscus

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

For other uses, see Basiliscus (disambiguation) and Basilisk (disambiguation).

Basiliscus
Latin: Imperator Caesar Basiliscus Augustus
Greek: Αὐτοκράτωρ καῖσαρ Βασιλίσκος αὐγουστος[2]
DynastyLeonid

Basiliscus (

fireships. Basiliscus's defeat cost the Eastern Empire 130,000 pounds (59,000 kg) of gold, causing the empire to hover above bankruptcy for 30 years. When Basiliscus returned to Constantinople, he sought refuge in the Hagia Sophia. His sister, Empress Verina, secured him a pardon and he left the church to retire in Neapolis
.

When Emperor Leo died in 474, his grandson

Eastern Roman Senate to acclaim
him instead.

Basiliscus quickly lost the support of his subjects and of his allies in court. Verina was alienated by the execution of Patricius, while the people objected to a combination of heavy taxes, heretical policies, and a natural disaster viewed as divine wrath for said heretical views. In an attempt to increase support, Basiliscus embraced the

Patriarch of Constantinople, Acacius, strongly opposed him, and together with Daniel the Stylite
, turned the population of Constantinople against Basiliscus.

Zeno, besieged by Illus and Trocundes in his homeland of Isauria, convinced the two generals to defect, and soon the three of them marched their troops toward the capital. Basiliscus ordered Armatus to intercept them, but Armatus also switched sides after Zeno promised to give him the position of magister militum praesentalis for life, and make his son Basiliscus caesar. With Armatus' defense force deliberately kept out of his way, Zeno entered Constantinople unopposed in August 476. Basiliscus and his family hid in a church until Zeno promised not to execute them; exiled to Limnae in Cappadocia, they were either beheaded or imprisoned in a dried-up cistern and left to starve to death.

Life

Early life and family

Basiliscus was born at an unknown date, likely in

J.B. Bury, summarizing sources from the Suda, Candidus, and Malchus states that:[10][11]

Basiliscus permitted Armatus, inasmuch as he was a kinsman, to associate freely with the Empress Zenonis. Their intercourse became intimate, and as they were both persons of no ordinary beauty they became extravagantly enamoured of each other. They used to exchange glances of the eyes, they used constantly to turn their faces and smile at each other; and the passion which they were obliged to conceal was the cause of dule and teen. They confided their trouble to Daniel, an eunuch, and to Maria, a midwife, who hardly healed their malady by the remedy of bringing them together. Then Zenonis coaxed Basiliscus to grant her lover the highest office in the city.[11]

Military career

A colored drawing of Europe in 476 A.D., showing the borders of states at the time by different colors, with the Roman Empire in yellow, and the Vandal kingdom in orange
A map of Europe in A.D. 476, showing the Vandal Kingdom in orange, and the Eastern Roman Empire in yellow

Leo rose to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire in 457 after the death of Emperor Marcian (r. 450–457).[12] Aspar, the magister militum, selected him for this position, much as he had selected Marcian himself.[12][13] Despite being half-Alanic and half-Gothic, Aspar held much influence in the empire since the mid fifth century,[14][15] and wielded significant power over Marcian and Leo.[16] Basiliscus served as a military officer under Leo, and was made consul of the East for 465, with Flavius Hermenericus as consul of the West.[3][6] Basiliscus was granted the rank of magister militum per Thracias in c. 464, and held it till 467/468; during this period he won many victories in Thrace against the Huns and Goths. He led troops in a war against a mixed group of the two in 466/467, along with Anagast, Aspar, and Ostrys.[6] He was made a patricius at some point, first mentioned as such in 468.[17]

Around 466, Leo attempted to free himself of Aspar's control. He utilized the support of the

magister militum praesentalis at that time.[20] It is said that the fleet consisted of 1,113 ships, with more than 100,000 men under the command of Basiliscus,[a][19] including mercenaries from as far as Öland, Sweden.[22] According to Bury, Leo was influenced by both Verina and Aspar in his selection of Basiliscus, whom he describes as both "incompetent and untrustworthy"; he further states that Aspar intentionally chose a poor commander, to prevent Leo from becoming stronger by way of weakening the Vandals.[19] Historians Gerard Friell and Stephen Williams dismiss this, but accept that Verina pushed for his appointment and that Aspar did not object.[23] Historian Peter Heather points out that, at this point, Basiliscus had just returned from considerable success on the Balkan frontier of the empire.[24]

galleys scattered the Vandal fleet near Sicily, something said by Procopius to have caused Gaiseric to give all up for lost, fearing a decisive blow to capture Carthage. However, Basiliscus did not press his advantage and rested his forces in Cape Bon, 60 kilometres (37 mi) from Carthage;[27][28] a strategic location as it was near the port of Utica, which, unlike Carthage, was not blocked off with a chain and the winds would push opposing ships into the coast.[28] According to historians Michael Kulikowski, Friell, and Williams, Gaiseric feigned interest in peace and proposed a five-day truce, in order to allow himself time to prepare.[22][23] Basiliscus accepted, possibly in favor of Aspar who opposed the war, in order to achieve a compromise with the Vandals.[29] Heather notes that the Romans strongly intended to avoid a naval engagement,[30] and archaeologist George Bass suggests this might be the reason that Basiliscus hesitated to strike the Vandals.[31][32]

Gaiseric assembled a new fleet with a number of

fire ships and, aided by good winds, attacked the Roman fleet at the Battle of Cape Bon. The Roman fleet was routed by the combination of the fire ships, bad winds, and surprise, with half of it being destroyed. Basiliscus fled with the remainder of the fleet to Sicily, to consolidate with Marcellinus's forces; their morale and supply might have brought a victory, but Marcellinus was assassinated, possibly on Ricimer's orders. Heraclius, who had not yet reached Carthage, returned to the Eastern Roman Empire by the path he came, and Basiliscus returned to Constantinople.[22][27] The total cost of the armaments for the fleet was 130,000 pounds (59,000 kg) of gold,[b][13][34] more than the entire treasury of the Eastern Empire, causing the Eastern Empire to waver above bankruptcy for more than 30 years.[34]

Upon his return to Constantinople, Basiliscus sought refuge in the

Sassanid Empire of Roman military weakness.[38]

Aspar regained power after the failure of the African invasion, and his son

Arcadiopolis and Philipopolis, but was forced to negotiate soon after due the lack of supplies.[42]

Rise to power

When Leo fell ill in 473, he had his grandson, Leo II (r.  474), the son of Zeno and Ariadne, crowned as emperor in October 473.[43] Leo died on 18 January 474,[39][44] and Leo II took the throne. Zeno was installed as co-emperor, crowned on 29 January,[45] and when Leo II died in Autumn, Zeno became the sole eastern emperor.[39] Zeno likely had Theoderic Strabo stripped of his role as magister militum praesentalis.[46] Zeno was very unpopular, among both the common people and the senatorial class, in part simply because he was an Isaurian, a race which had acquired a poor reputation under Emperor Arcadius (r.  383–408), and also because his rule would induce a promotion of fellow Isaurians to high positions.[47]

Although Verina had supported Zeno's elevation as co-emperor to Leo II, she turned against him once he became sole emperor. The causes for this are disputed. The Byzantists Bury and Ernst Stein suggest this was motivated by personal hatred,[48][49][50] and Ernest Walter Brooks, historian and scholar of the Syriac language, suggests the Isaurian background of Zeno directly caused the hatred of Verina and the people.[50][51] Historians Kamilla Twardowska and W. D. Burgess argue that his ethnicity likely exacerbated existing hatred, but did not solely cause it.[52][53] Twardowska also dismisses Evagrius Scholasticus' suggestions, especially that of him leading a "dissolute life", stating that is common of historians wishing to paint an emperor in a bad light.[50] Historian Mirosław Leszka attributes the action to a simple desire for power, and Twardowska theorizes that Verina supported him while Leo II was emperor because she would still retain influence as a close relative, which she would not wield over Zeno himself. Zeno had the option of raising another son from a previous marriage to the throne, or else his brother, Longinus, which would remove any remnant of Verina's influence.[53] Byzantine chronicler John Malalas states that Verina put forth a request which Zeno denied, causing her conspiracy, but does not specify the request; historian Maciej Salamon has argued that this request would be to have Basiliscus and her other relatives placed in high positions.[54][55]

Verina conspired with others to remove him as emperor, and historians generally accept that she planned to install her lover, the

Augusta and Patricius was executed.[3][60][61] Zeno took residence in the fortress of Olba, and later Sbida.[62] Illus and Trocundes were sent by Basiliscus to lay siege to Zeno's fortress, and capturing Longinus, whom Illus would not release until 485.[63]

Reign

a marble copy of the Cnidian Aphrodite statue
A copy of the Aphrodite of Knidos, made after the original was destroyed in the fire of 475/476

Basiliscus quickly lost support in Constantinople, through a combination of heavy taxes and heretical ecclesiastical policies, as well as a natural disaster.[3] A large fire broke out in the quarter of Chalkoprateia in 475/476, before quickly spreading.[64] The fire destroyed the Basilica, a library containing 120,000 books, as well as the Palace of Lausus, the Aphrodite of Knidos, the Lindian Athene, and the Samian Here.[65] Bury remarks that, as is common with "accidents in superstitious ages", the fire was reputed to be supernatural in origin.[64] Many at the time viewed it as a symbol of divine wrath against Basiliscus.[66]

While Basiliscus's rise was not illegal, as usurpations confirmed by the senate were generally considered legitimate, such had not happened for over a century in the Eastern Roman Empire. Additionally, he was politically incompetent and temperamental, alienating much of his support.[67] While Basiliscus was supported initially by the elites of the Eastern Roman Empire, he never gained much popularity amongst the common people, weakening his legitimacy; his conflicts with Acacius reduced his support from the people of Constantinople, who were heavily Chalcedonian.[68] Basiliscus was forced to levy heavy taxes by the near-bankruptcy of the empire, and also to sell off public positions for money. He utilized the praefectus urbi Epinicus, a former ally of Verina, to extort money from the church.[67] Verina turned against Basiliscus after the execution of her lover and began to plot to return Zeno to power,[69][70] and sought refuge in Blachernae. It is not known if she fled because of her support or began to support Zeno after she fled, as the source, Candidus, is unclear, but the Vita Danielis Stylite states that she remained there until after Basiliscus died.[70]

Basiliscus had Armatus made magister militum praesentalis, allegedly at the insistence of Zenonis. This turned Theoderic Strabo against him, as he hated Armatus.

Hebdomon, out of fear of the capital's populace; this news may have motivated them,[77][78][79] along with letters received from ministers of the capital. These letters informed them that the city was now ready to restore Zeno, as the people had become even less supportive of Basiliscus due to the "fiscal rapacity of his ministers", as Bury puts it. Illus, possibly buoyed by his hold over Zeno, by way of his imprisonment of his brother, arranged to ally him and they began to march towards Constantinople with their combined forces.[73][74][75][77]

Basiliscus ordered Armatus to take command of all the troops in Thrace and Constantinople, as well as the palace guard, and lead them against the three. In spite of his oath of loyalty, Armatus betrayed Basiliscus when Zeno offered to have him made magister militum praesentalis for life, and his son, Basiliscus, crowned as caesar. He allowed Zeno to pass to Constantinople unhindered,[3][64][75][80] taking a separate road from the one which Zeno was travelling on to avoid confronting him, and marched instead into Isaura. Zeno entered Constantinople unopposed in August 476.[3][64][75] Basiliscus and his family fled and took refuge in a church, only leaving once Zeno promised not to execute them. Zeno exiled them to Limnae in Cappadocia,[d][3][81] where they were imprisoned in a dried-up cistern, and left to starve to death.[3][81] According to some sources, they were instead beheaded.[64]

Religious policies

During the 5th century, a central religious issue was the debate concerning how the human and divine nature of

Antioch.[14][89][90][91]

Basiliscus rose to power during a time when the miaphysite faction was growing in power, and his attempts to ally them to himself backfired severely.

Timothy Ailuros, who returned from his exile in Crimea after the death of Leo. By them Basiliscus was persuaded to attack the tenets of Chalcedonianism.[69] Basiliscus had Timothy Ailuros restored as the Patriarch of Alexandria, and Peter the Fuller as Patriarch of Antioch.[96] Under his reign the Third Council of Ephesus was held in 475, presided over by Timothy Ailuros, which officially condemned the Council of Chalcedon, and a synodical letter was sent to Basiliscus requesting that Patriarch Acacius be stripped of his role.[97] Historian Richard Price argues that Basiliscus' association with Timothy Ailuros also reduced his support as some rumors suggested that Timothy had a role in the murder of Proterius of Alexandria, a Chalcedonian, and his ties to Timothy were seen as tacit approval of this murder.[98]

Basiliscus issued an

Tome of Leo.[93][103][104] While enthusiastically received in Ephesus and Egypt, it resulted in outrage from the monasteries as well as alienating Patriarch Acacius, and the heavily Chalcedonian population of the capital.[69][92][105][106] Repudiating the Council of Chalcedon invalidated Canon 28 of it, ending Acacius's control over the Eastern sees,[89][107][108] and as such Acacius refused to sign it.[89][103] Acacius draped the Church of St. Sophia in black,[f][60][69][89] and lead a congregation in mourning. This caused Basiliscus to leave the city,[60][69][89] and a significant portion of the city to support Zeno's return.[69] The popular stylite (pillar monk) Daniel the Stylite, whom Basiliscus had been attempting to sway to his side, rejected his efforts after the publication of the encyclical, and descended from his pillar to pray alongside Acacius, branding Basiliscus as a "second Diocletian" for his attacks on the church.[103][109]

There is some debate over the differences between the encyclical presented by Evagrius Scholasticus and that of

Ecumenical Council,[108] and is worded much like an imperial edict.[100] Although Acacius and Basiliscus had feuded since the first months of his reign, Daniel later played the part of a diplomat, reconciling them near the end of the latter's reign, before Zeno retook Constantinople.[115] All of Basiliscus' religious edicts were annulled by the praetorian prefect Sebastianos in December 477, by order of Zeno.[116]

In popular culture

Basiliscus is part of a 1669 play written by Sir William Killigrew, The Imperial Tragedy, where he appears as a ghost, during the second reign of Zeno.[117]

Sources

Notes

  1. ^ Historian Warren Treadgold argues for a figure of 400,000 total men, as given by Byzantine administrator John the Lydian, arguing that Procopius' figure of 100,000 excludes the sailors and oarsmen.[21]
  2. Praetorian Prefects, both east and west, contributed 47,000 pounds (21,000 kg) of gold, the coffers of the Sacred Largess 17,000 pounds (7,700 kg) of gold, 700,000 of silver partially from the Private Estates, largely made up of confiscated property, and partly from the reserves of Anthemius.[33]
  3. ^ This narrative is challenged by Kamilla Twardowska, who views it more likely that this is propaganda from Candidus, repeated by John of Antioch. Instead, she argues that Patricius was likely a key political ally of Verina, but, given the revolt was likely influenced by desire to retain dynastic power, not a plausible candidate for the throne.[56]
  4. ^ Victor of Tunnuna gives the location as Sasima, and Evagrius Scholasticus and J. B. Bury give the location as Cucusus.[81]
  5. ^ Otto Seeck gives the date as Easter (6 April).[99][100]
  6. ^ Some sources say all the churches of Constantinople were draped in black, rather than just the Church of St. Sophia.[104]
  7. ^ Some sources put this concurrent to Zeno's march to Constantinople, stating that the events took place after Basiliscus was made aware of the defection of Armatus, causing him to quickly revoke his ecclesiastical edicts, and attempt to placate Patriarch Acacius and the people.[64][75]

Primary sources

References

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  2. ^ Rösch 1978, pp. 166.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Elton 1998.
  4. ^ Krautschick 1986, pp. 344–371.
  5. ^ Brandes 1993, pp. 407–437.
  6. ^ a b c Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, p. 212.
  7. ^ a b c Herrin 2016, pp. 22–23.
  8. ^ Handley 2010, p. 134.
  9. ^ MacGeorge 2002, p. 57.
  10. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, p. 148.
  11. ^ a b c Bury 1923, p. 392.
  12. ^ a b Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, pp. 714–715.
  13. ^ a b c d Ostrogorsky 1956, p. 61.
  14. ^ a b Nathan 1998.
  15. ^ Lee 2013, p. 96.
  16. ^ Ostrogorsky 1956, pp. 61–62.
  17. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, pp. 212–213.
  18. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, p. 498.
  19. ^ a b c Bury 1923, p. 335.
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  21. ^ Treadgold 1995, pp. 190–191.
  22. ^ a b c Kulikowski 2019, p. 224.
  23. ^ a b c Friell & Williams 2005, pp. 178–179.
  24. ^ Heather 2007, p. 401.
  25. ^ Stewart 2020, p. 106.
  26. ^ Bury 1923, p. 336.
  27. ^ a b Bury 1923, pp. 336–337.
  28. ^ a b Heather 2007, p. 402.
  29. ^ Friell & Williams 2005, pp. 261–262.
  30. ^ Heather 2007, pp. 401–402.
  31. ^ Heather 2007, p. 310.
  32. ^ Bass 1972, p. 134.
  33. ^ Bury 1923, Chapter X fn. 95.
  34. ^ a b c Bury 1923, p. 337.
  35. ^ Kulikowski 2019, p. 241.
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  37. ^ Bury 1923, p. 318.
  38. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, pp. 136 & 167.
  39. ^ a b c d e Ostrogorsky 1956, p. 62.
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  42. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, pp. 1073–1074.
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  45. ^ Croke 2004, p. 572.
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  47. ^ Bury 1923, p. 389.
  48. ^ Bury 1923, pp. 390–393.
  49. ^ Stein 1959, p. 363.
  50. ^ a b c Twardowska 2014, p. 14.
  51. ^ Brooks 1893, pp. 209–238.
  52. ^ Burgess 1992, p. 892.
  53. ^ a b Twardowska 2014, p. 15.
  54. ^ a b Twardowska 2014, p. 16.
  55. ^ a b Salamon 1994, p. 184.
  56. ^ a b Twardowska 2014, pp. 17–18.
  57. ^ a b Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, pp. 838–839.
  58. ^ a b c Bury 1923, pp. 390–391.
  59. ^ Twardowska 2014, p. 17.
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  62. ^ Perale 2020, p. 423.
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  64. ^ a b c d e f Bury 1923, p. 393.
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  66. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 267.
  67. ^ a b Friell & Williams 2005, p. 185.
  68. ^ Osequeda 2018, pp. 107 & 184.
  69. ^ a b c d e f Kulikowski 2019, p. 245.
  70. ^ a b Twardowska 2014, pp. 19–20.
  71. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, pp. 1074–1075.
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  73. ^ a b Bury 1923, pp. 392–393.
  74. ^ a b Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, pp. 149, 567, & 1127.
  75. ^ a b c d e Friell & Williams 2005, pp. 185–186.
  76. ^ a b Leszka 2013, pp. 50–51.
  77. ^ a b Leszka 2013, p. 51.
  78. ^ Redies 1997, p. 218.
  79. ^ Kosiński 2010, p. 78.
  80. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, p. 149.
  81. ^ a b c Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, p. 214.
  82. ^ Lee 2013, p. 137.
  83. ^ a b Lee 2013, p. 145.
  84. ^ Vasiliev 1980, pp. 99 & 105.
  85. ^ Davis 2004, p. 81.
  86. ^ Gallagher 2008, p. 585.
  87. ^ Whitworth 2017, p. 360.
  88. ^ Lee 2013, p. 146.
  89. ^ a b c d e Osequeda 2018, p. 106.
  90. ^ Lee 2013, p. 147.
  91. ^ Lee 2001, p. 814.
  92. ^ a b c Bonner 2020, p. 131.
  93. ^ a b Ostrogorsky 1956, p. 64.
  94. ^ Osequeda 2018, pp. 186–187.
  95. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris 1980, p. 1066.
  96. ^ Kulikowski 2019, p. 248.
  97. ^ Osequeda 2018, pp. 105–106.
  98. ^ a b Osequeda 2018, p. 185.
  99. ^ Seeck 1919, p. 421.
  100. ^ a b c d e Greatrex 2011, p. 177.
  101. ^ Frend 1988, p. 193.
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  108. ^ a b c Bury 1923, p. 403.
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  111. ^ Schwartz 1934, p. 186 n. 4.
  112. ^ Brennecke 1988, p. 35.
  113. ^ Draguet 1924, pp. 55–59.
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  117. ^ Killigrew 1669.

Bibliography

Basiliscus
Leonid Dynasty
Born: unknown Died: 476/477
Regnal titles
Preceded by
Eastern Roman Emperor
475–476
with Marcus
 Succeeded by
Political offices
Preceded by
Rusticius,
Anicius Olybrius
 Roman consul
465
with Hermenericus 		Succeeded by
Preceded by
Zeno Augustus II
(in the East alone)
 Roman consul
476
with Armatus 		Vacant
Title next held by
Illus, in 478
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