Philippines–United States relations
This article may require copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling. (April 2023) |
Philippines |
United States |
---|---|
Diplomatic mission | |
Philippine Embassy, Washington, D.C. | United States Embassy, Manila |
Envoy | |
Ambassador Jose Manuel Romualdez | Ambassador MaryKay Carlson |
The bilateral and diplomatic relations of the
The Philippines is one of the oldest Asian partners of the United States and a strategically
This article discusses Philippine–American relations after Philippine independence from the United States in 1946, while the article History of the Philippines (1898–1946) describes the history of the Philippines during American colonial rule.
History
The
The United States federal government nearly considered selling Mindanao to the German Empire in 1910.[15]
Except for the brief interruption of the Japanese occupation between 1942 and 1945, the United States ruled the Philippines from 1898 to 1946, after which, the Philippines was granted independence after being devastated by the Second World War.[citation needed]
The US supported the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos.
Pivot to China during the Duterte administration
After
A few weeks after, Duterte suggested American special forces to cease its operations and leave Mindanao. He cited the killings of Muslim Filipinos during a U.S. pacification campaign in the early 1900s, which he said were at the root of the long restiveness by minority Muslims in the largely Catholic nation's south.[18] It was only during his official visit to Vietnam last September 28, 2016, when he explicitly expressed that he wants an end to the Philippines' joint military exercises with the United States, saying the upcoming scheduled war games will be the last under his term, while adding that he will continue to uphold the Philippines' treaties with the US.[19]
As of October 2016[update], despite Duterte's shift of foreign policy to China from US, Filipinos still had low approval and trust rate in China compared to the US which continued to hold high trust and approval ratings.
Duterte later said following the
Relations during the Marcos Jr. administration
Current president Bongbong Marcos appears to be attempting to normalize relations with the United States in part due to China's geostrategic rise and the need to cooperate on the economy,[24] although the Biden administration has said human rights will come first in America's dealings with the Philippines, responding to challenges of Marcos and Duterte's human rights records.[25]
Marcos has met with U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken,[26] U.S. Vice President Kamala Harris and Second Gentleman Doug Emhoff.[27]
Marcos and U.S. President Joe Biden met face-to-face on the sidelines of the 2022 United Nations General Assembly meeting on September 23, during Marcos's working visit to the United States from September 18 to 24, during which top financial officials secured investment pledges of $4 billion and 100,000 jobs for the Philippines, with Biden pledging to help the Philippines with energy and food security,[28][25] and again during the 40th and 41st ASEAN Summits in Cambodia during the week of November 9 to 13, 2022.[29][30]
In February 2023 Marcos briefly met with Biden's Defense Secretary Lloyd Austin to finalize an agreement to add U.S.-accessible Philippine military bases to the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement.[31][32]
In April 11, 2024, Marcos along with Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida met with Biden in Washington, DC for a trilateral summit. One main issue seen to be discussed during the meeting is the growing tension in the South China Sea and what cooperation among each country can come to an agreement with to ensure security in the region as well as freedom of navigation. [33]
Military agreements
Bases era (1947–91)
A 1947 Military Bases Agreement[34] gave the United States a 99-year lease on a number of Philippine military and naval bases in which U.S. authorities had virtual territorial rights.[35] In August 1951, a mutual defense treaty (MDT) was signed between representatives of the Philippines and the United States. The overall accord contained eight articles and dictated that both nations would support each other if either the Philippines or the United States were to be attacked by an external party. An amendment to the bases agreement in 1966 reduced its 99-year term to 25 years.[36] In 1979, after two years of negotiation, the bases agreement was renewed with some amendments.[37]
Pursuant to the bases agreement, the United States maintained and operated major facilities at Clark Air Base until November 1991,[38] and at Subic Bay Naval Complex and several small subsidiary installations in the Philippines until November 1992. In July 1991, negotiators from the two countries reached agreement on a draft treaty providing for the clean-up and turn over of Clark to the Philippine government in 1992, and for the lease of Subic Bay Naval Base by the U.S. for ten years.[39] By 1991, operations at Clark had already been scaled back because of the end of the Cold War, with the last combat aircraft leaving in 1990, before the base was heavily damaged by the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo.[40]
On September 16, 1991, the Philippine Senate rejected renewal of the bases agreement by a slim margin,[36] and despite further efforts to salvage the situation, the two sides could not reach an agreement. As a result, the Philippine Government informed the U.S. on December 6, 1991, that it would have one year to complete withdrawal. That withdrawal went smoothly and was completed ahead of schedule, with the last U.S. forces departing on November 24, 1992. On departure, the U.S. Government turned over assets worth more than $1.3 billion to the Philippines, including an airport and ship-repair facility. Agencies formed by the Philippine Government have converted the former military bases for civilian commercial use, with Subic Bay serving as a flagship for that effort. The Philippine government on July 16, 2015, announced that it will revive a US-built deep-water naval base in Subic Bay[41] The vote resulted in 11 senators in favor of extending the treaty, and 12 senators in favor of suppressing it. The list of senators who voted for the bases treaty - to retain the bases - were Mamintal Tamano, Neptali Gonzales Sr., Heherson Alvarez, Edgardo Angara, Ernesto Herrera, Jose Lina Jr., John Osmeña, Vicente Paterno, Santanina Rasul, Alberto Romulo and Leticia Ramos Shahani. The Anti-Bases Coalition, founded by senators Jose W. Diokno and Lorenzo Tañada led the call to end American military presence in the country. At the time of the vote, the retired senator Tañada stood up on his wheelchair to rapturous applause shouting, "Mabuhay!" or "Long live the Philippines."[42]
Voted to extend | Voted against extending |
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|
Visiting Forces Agreement
The post-U.S. bases era had seen U.S.-Philippine relations improved and broadened, with a prominent focus on economic and commercial ties while maintaining the importance of the security dimension. U.S. investment continues to play an important role in the Philippine economy, while a strong security relationship rests on the
President Arroyo repeatedly stressed the close friendship between the Philippines and the U.S. and her desire to expand bilateral ties further. Both governments tried to revitalize and strengthen their partnership by working toward greater security, prosperity, and service to Filipinos and Americans alike. Inaugurated into office on the same day as President Bush, President Arroyo lent strong support to the
On February 7, 2020, President Rodrigo Duterte officially ordered the termination of the VFA as a response to an accumulation of a series of "disrespectful acts" by a few US senators directed against the sovereignty of the Republic of the Philippines.[43] On February 11, 2020, the Philippine government officially notified the U.S. that it would be terminating the VFA.[44] In response, Secretary of Defense Mark Esper called the move "unfortunate." President Trump said "I don't really mind if they would like to do that," as he claimed "it will save a lot of money."[45] Duterte would later backtrack and suspended the process of termination in June and November 2020 before officially restoring the agreement in June 2021.[46]
Annual military exercises
The annual Balikatan (Shoulder-to-Shoulder) bilateral military exercises contribute directly to the Philippine armed forces' efforts to root out Abu Sayyaf and Jemaah Islamiyah terrorists and bring development to formerly terrorist-plagued areas, notably Basilan and Jolo. They include not only combined military training but also civil-military affairs and humanitarian projects. The International Military Education and Training (IMET) program is the largest in the Pacific and the third-largest in the world, and a Mutual Logistics Support Agreement (MLSA) was signed in November 2002. Similarly, law enforcement cooperation had reached new levels: U.S. and Philippine agencies have cooperated to bring charges against numerous terrorists, to implement the countries' extradition treaty, and to train thousands of Filipino law enforcement officers. There is a Senior Law Enforcement Advisor helping the Philippine National Police with its Transformation Program.
Nearly 400,000 Americans visit the Philippines each year. Providing government services to U.S. and other citizens, therefore, constitutes an important aspect of the bilateral relationship. Those services include veterans' affairs, social security, and consular operations. Benefits to Filipinos from the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs and the Social Security Administration totaled $297,389,415 in 2006. Many people-to-people programs exist between the U.S. and the Philippines, including Fulbright, International Visitors, and Aquino Fellowship exchange programs, as well as the U.S. Peace Corps.
Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement
The Agreement on Enhanced Defense Cooperation is a ten-page document containing a preamble and 12 articles, that was signed on April 28, 2014. It is a framework agreement that raises the scope of the 1951 MDT.
The Preamble to the EDCA refers to the obligations of the Philippines and the United States, under both the Charter of the United Nations and the MDT, to settle international disputes by peaceful means, not to endanger international peace and security, and to refrain from the threat or use of force “in any manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations.”
Importantly, the Preamble notes that both parties “share an understanding for the United States not to establish a permanent military presence or base in the territory of the Philippines.” The Preamble later concludes, “all United States access to and use of facilities and areas will be at the invitation of the Philippines and with full respect for the Philippines Constitution and Philippine laws.[47]
Trade and investment
The 1946
Two-way U.S. merchandise trade with the Philippines amounted to $17.3 billion in 2006 (U.S. Department of Commerce data). According to Philippine Government data, 16% of the Philippines' imports in 2006 came from the U.S., and about 18% of its exports were bound for America. The Philippines ranks as the 26th-largest export market and the 30th-largest supplier of the United States. Key exports to the U.S. are semiconductor devices and computer peripherals, automobile parts, electric machinery, textiles and garments, wheat and animal feeds, and coconut oil. In addition to other goods, the Philippines imports raw and semi-processed materials for the manufacture of semiconductors, electronics and electrical machinery, transport equipment, and cereals and cereal preparations.
The U.S. traditionally has been the Philippines' largest foreign investor, with about $6.6 billion in estimated investment as of end-2005 (U.S. Department of Commerce data). Since the late 1980s, the Philippines has committed itself to reforms that encourage foreign investment as a basis for economic development, subject to certain guidelines and restrictions in specified areas. Under President Ramos, the Philippines expanded reforms, opening the power generation and telecommunications sectors to foreign investment, as well as securing ratification of the Uruguay Round agreement and membership in the World Trade Organization. As noted earlier, President Arroyo's administration has generally continued such reforms despite opposition from vested interests and "nationalist" blocs. A major obstacle has been and will continue to be constitutional restrictions on, among others, foreign ownership of land and public utilities, which limits maximum ownership to 40%.
Over the last two decades, the relatively closed Philippine economy has been opened significantly by foreign exchange deregulation, foreign investment and banking liberalization, tariff and market barrier reduction, and foreign entry into the retail trade sector. The Electric Power Industry Reform Act of 2001 opened opportunities for U.S. firms to participate in the power industry in the Philippines. Information and communications technologies, backroom operations such as call centers, and regional facilities or shared-service centers were probably likewise leading investment opportunities.
During the visit by President Benigno Aquino III to Washington DC, on July 7, 2012, the US-Philippine Society was launched. It is a non-profit independent organisation tasked for generating awareness about the Philippines in the US. The last board meeting was conducted by the society on January 24, 2013.[49]
In its 2013 Special 301 Report, the Office of the United States Trade Representatives wrote "The United States looks to the Philippines to take important steps to address piracy over the internet, in particular with respect to notorious online markets".[50] It is speculated that pressure from the United States contributed to the complaint filed by Philippine Association of the Record Industry against the torrent website KickassTorrents, resulting in its seizure by Philippine authorities on June 13, 2013.[51]
In April 2022, U.S. private equity firm
That same year, the
Diplomatic missions
The U.S. maintains an embassy in Manila and a consulate in Cebu. The American Business Center, which houses the Foreign Commercial Service and the Foreign Agricultural Service, is located in Makati. The Philippine government maintains an embassy in Washington, D.C. as well as several consulates throughout the United States.
Security
U.S.
The 1951 mutual-defense treaty was reaffirmed with the November 2011 Manila Declaration.[62][63] United States Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Jonathan Greenert suggested that LCS or surveillance aircraft may be deployed to the Philippines.[64] And the Philippines is considering the proposal.[65] These "rotational deployments" will help replace some of the American presence in the area that was given up when the permanent American bases in the Philippines were closed under President Bush.[66]
In 2012 the Philippines and the United States conducted joint military exercises.
The
During a 2013 visit to the Philippines, Defense Secretary,
- Maritime domain awareness,
- building up the capacities of the Armed Forces of the Philippines,
- and counter terrorism.[72]
In April 2014, a ten-year pact (EDCA – Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement)[73] was signed between the U.S. President, Barack Obama and the Philippine President, Benigno Aquino III, allowing the United States to increase its military presence in the Philippines.[74][75][76][77] Five bases were opened to U.S. troops beginning in 2016.[78]
In 2017, the
In February 2019, then-U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo affirmed his country's commitments under the 1951 Mutual Defense Treaty (MDT) during a meeting with counterparts in the Philippines. Pompeo in a speech added, "as the South China Sea is part of the Pacific, any armed attack on Philippine forces, aircraft or public vessels will trigger mutual defense obligations".[80] The US assured that they will "back the Philippines" if confrontation between the Philippines and China occurs in the South China Sea.[81] The move came after years of American reluctance to affirm commitments, which led to numerous Filipino politicians to push for review of the 68-year-old security pact between the Philippines and the US. The Filipino foreign affairs secretary welcomed the US commitment, adding that there is "no need to review" the pact anymore.[82][83][80][81]
In 2023, the Biden administration, represented by Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin, and the Marcos administration finalized an agreement to allow the American military access to four additional Philippine military bases under EDCA.[31][32] However, the governors of Isabela and Cagayan which together host three of the bases expressed dismay at the agreement, stating they did not want their provinces to pay too much for the infrastructure improvements or become potential targets of Chinese nuclear attack.[84]
Country comparison
See also
- Americans in the Philippines
- CIA activities in the Philippines
- Coup attempt of 1989
- Filipino Americans
- Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act
- Mutual Defense Treaty (United States–Philippines)
- Philippine Division
- Reserve Officers' Training Corps (Philippines)
- Reserve Officers' Training Corps (United States)
- Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act
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- ^ The 1987 constitution designated Filipino, which is based on Tagalog with the inclusion of terms from all recognized languages of the Philippines, as the national language.
- ^ It also designated English as an official language (together with Filipino) for purposes of communication and instruction, and designated the regional languages as auxiliary official languages in the regions to serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein.
- ^ De facto national language due to its widespread use and does not have an official language at federal level.
- ^ English is the official language of 32 states; English and Hawaiian are both official languages in Hawaii, and English and 20 Indigenous languages are official in Alaska. Algonquian, Cherokee, and Sioux are among many other official languages in Native-controlled lands throughout the country. French is a de facto, but unofficial, language in Maine and Louisiana, while New Mexico law grants Spanish a special status. In five territories, English as well as one or more indigenous languages are official: Spanish in Puerto Rico, Samoan in American Samoa, Chamorro in both Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands. Carolinian is also an official language in the Northern Mariana Islands.
Bibliography
- Cullather, Nick (1994). Illusions of influence: the political economy of United States-Philippines relations, 1942–1960. ISBN 0-8047-2280-3.
External links
This article incorporates public domain material from U.S. Bilateral Relations Fact Sheets. United States Department of State.
- Philippines (1946). Treaty of General Relations and Protocol with the Republic of the Philippines: Message from the President of the United States Transmitting the Treaty of General Relations and Protocol Between the United States of America and the Republic of the Philippines, Signed at Manila on July 4, 1946. U.S. Government Printing Office.
- History recognition, diplomatic and consular relations : Philippines, Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State.