User:Al Ameer son/Mu'awiya
Origins and early life
Mu'awiya's year of birth is uncertain with 597, 603 or 605 cited by the Muslim traditional sources.
In 624, Muhammad and his followers attempted to intercept a Meccan caravan led by Mu'awiya's father on its return from Syria, prompting Abu Sufyan to call for reinforcements.
Mu'awiya and his father may have reached an understanding with Muhammad during the
Governorship of Syria
Early military career and administrative promotions
After Muhammad died in 632,
Abu Bakr's successor
Upon the accession of Caliph
Consolidation of local power
During the reign of Uthman, Mu'awiya formed an alliance with the
Mu'awiya's reliance on the native Syrian Arab tribes was compounded by the heavy toll inflicted on the Muslim troops in Syria by the plague of Amwas,
Though Syria's rural, Aramaic Christian population remained largely intact,[37] the Muslim conquest had caused a mass flight of Greek Christian urbanites from Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia and Tripoli to Byzantine territory,[32] while those who remained held pro-Byzantine sympathies.[31] According to the historian J. W. Jandora, "Mu'awiya was thus confronted with a population problem".
Mu'awiya initiated the Arab naval campaigns against the Byzantines in the eastern Mediterranean,
In the histories of the 9th-century Muslim historians
After two previous attempts by the Arabs to conquer
Dominance of the eastern Mediterranean enabled Mu'awiya's naval forces to raid
First Fitna
Mu'awiya's domain was generally immune to the growing discontent prevailing in Medina, Egypt and
Uthman sent for assistance from Mu'awiya when rebels from Egypt
For seven months from the date of Ali's election there had been no formal relations between the caliph and the governor of Syria.[56] Following Ali's victory in Basra, Mu'awiya's position was vulnerable, his territory wedged between Ali's forces in Iraq and Egypt to the east and west, while the war with the Byzantines was ongoing in the north.[57][55] After failing to gain the defection of Egypt's governor, Qays ibn Sa'd, he resolved to end the Umayyad family's hostility to Amr ibn al-As, the conqueror and former governor of Egypt, whom they accused of involvement in Uthman's death.[58] Mu'awiya and Amr, who was widely respected by the Arab troops of Egypt, made a pact whereby the latter joined the coalition against Ali and Mu'awiya publicly agreed to install Amr as Egypt's lifetime governor should they oust Ali's appointee.[59]
Though he had the firm backing of the Kalb, to shore up the rest of his base in Syria, Mu'awiya was advised by his kinsman
Battle of Siffin and arbitration
The two sides met at Siffin in the first week of June 657 and engaged in days of skirmishes interrupted by a month-long truce on 19 June.[66] During the truce, Mu'awiya dispatched an embassy led by Habib ibn Maslama, who presented Ali with an ultimatum to hand over Uthman's alleged killers, abdicate and allow a shūrā to decide the caliphate.[67] Ali rebuffed Mu'awiya's envoys and on 18 July declared that the Syrians remained obstinate in their refusal to recognize his sovereignty.[68] On the following day, a week of duels between Ali's and Mu'awiya's top commanders ensued.[68] The main battle between the two armies commenced on 26 July.[69] As Ali's troops advanced toward Mu'awiya's tent, the governor ordered his elite troops forward and they bested the Iraqis before the tide turned against the Syrians the next day with the deaths of two of Mu'awiya's leading commanders, Ubayd Allah, the son of Caliph Umar, and Dhu'l-Kala Samayfa, the so-called "king of Himyar".[70] The loss of Ubayd Allah, in particular, was a blow to Mu'awiya's prestige as he had been the sole, non-Umayyad blood connection to the early caliphs to lend Mu'awiya his support at this juncture.[71]
Mu'awiya rejected suggestions from his advisers to engage Ali in a duel and definitively end hostilities.[72] The battle climaxed on the so-called "Night of Clamor" on 28 July, which saw Ali's forces take the advantage in a melée as the death toll mounted on both sides.[73][72][d] This prompted Amr ibn al-As to counsel Mu'awiya the following morning to have a number of his men tie leaves of the Qur'an on their lances in an appeal to the Iraqis to settle the conflict through consultation.[73][74][75] Though this act represented a surrender of sorts as the governor abandoned, at least temporarily, his previous insistence on settling the dispute with Ali militarily and pursuing Uthman's killers into Iraq, it had the effect of sowing discord and uncertainty in Ali's ranks.[74]
The caliph adhered to the will of the majority in his army and accepted the proposal to arbitrate.
Claim to the caliphate and resumption of hostilities
Following the breakdown of the arbitration talks, Amr and the Syrian delegates returned to Damascus where they greeted Mu'awiya as amīr al-muʾminīn.[84] In April/May 658, Mu'awiya received a general pledge of allegiance from the Syrians.[51] In response, Ali broke off communications with Mu'awiya, mobilized for war and invoked a curse against Mu'awiya and his close retinue as a ritual in the morning prayers.[84] Mu'awiya reciprocated in kind against Ali and his closest supporters in his own domain.[85]
In July, Mu'awiya dispatched an army under Amr to Egypt after a request for intervention from pro-Uthman mutineers in the province who were being suppressed by the governor, Caliph Abu Bakr's son and Ali's stepson
In 659/660, Mu'awiya expanded the operations to the
News of Busr's actions in Arabia spurred Ali's troops to rally behind his planned campaign against Mu'awiya,
Before and/or after Ali's death, Mu'awiya received oaths of allegiance in one or two formal ceremonies in Jerusalem, the first in late 660/early 661 and the second in July 661.
Caliphate
Domestic rule and administration
There is little information in the Muslim traditional sources about Mu'awiya's rule in Syria, the center of his caliphate.[105][106] He established his court in Damascus and moved the caliphal treasury there from Kufa.[105] He relied on his Syrian tribal soldiery, increasing their pay at the expense of the Iraqi garrisons.[105] The highest stipends were paid on an inheritable basis to 2,000 nobles of the Quda'a and Kinda tribes, the core components of his support base, who were further awarded the privilege of consultation for all major decisions and the rights to veto or propose measures.[26][107] The respective leaders of the Quda'a and the Kinda, the Kalbite chief Ibn Bahdal and the Homs-based Shurahbil, formed part of his Syrian inner circle along with the Qurayshites Abd al-Rahman, son of the distinguished commander Khalid ibn al-Walid, and al-Dahhak ibn Qays.[108]
Mu'awiya is credited by the traditional sources for establishing dīwāns (government departments) for correspondences (rasāʾil), chancellery (khātam) and the postal route (barīd).[26] Following an assassination attempt by the Kharijite al-Burak ibn Abd Allah on Mu'awiya while he was praying in the mosque of Damascus in 661, Mu'awiya established a caliphal ḥaras (personal guard) and shurṭa (select troops) and the maqṣūra (reserved area) within mosques.[109][110] The caliph's treasury was largely dependent on the tax revenues of Syria and income from the crown lands that he confiscated in Iraq and Arabia.[26] He also received the customary fifth of the war booty acquired by his commanders during expeditions.[26] In the Jazira, Mu'awiya coped with the tribal influx, which spanned previously established groups such as the Sulaym, newcomers from the Mudar and Rabi'a confederations and civil war refugees from Kufa and Basra, by administratively detaching the military district of Qinnasrin–Jazira from Homs, according to the 8th-century historian Sayf ibn Umar.[111][112] The 9th-century historian al-Baladhuri attributes this change to Mu'awiya's successor Yazid I (r. 680–683).[111]
Syria retained its Byzantine-era bureaucracy, which was staffed by Christians including the head of the tax administration,
Governance in the provinces
Mu'awiya's primary internal challenge was overseeing a Syria-based government which could reunite the politically and socially fractured Caliphate and assert authority over the tribes which formed its armies.[111] He applied indirect rule in the Caliphate's provinces, appointing governors with autonomy spanning full civil and military authority.[124] Though in principle governors were obliged to forward surplus tax revenues to the caliph,[111] in practice most of the surplus was distributed among the provincial garrisons and Damascus received a negligible share.[26][125] During Mu'awiya's caliphate, the governors relied on the ashrāf (tribal chieftains), who served as intermediaries between the authorities and the tribesmen in the garrisons.[111] Rather than the absolute government practiced by Caliph Ali, Mu'awiya's statecraft was likely inspired by his father, who utilized his wealth to establish political alliances.[125] The caliph generally preferred bribing his opponents over direct conflict.[125] In the summation of the historian Hugh Kennedy, Mu'awiya ruled by "making agreements with those who held power in the provinces, by building up the power of those who were prepared to co-operate with him and by attaching as many important and influential figures to his cause as possible".[125]
Iraq and the east
Challenges to central authority in general and to Mu'awiya's rule in particular were most acute in Iraq, where divisions were rife between the ashrāf upstarts and the early Muslim elite, which was further divided between Ali's partisans and the Kharijites.
In Basra, Mu'awiya reappointed his Abd Shams kinsman
Following al-Mughira's death in 670, Mu'awiya allotted Kufa and its dependencies to Ziyad's Basran governorship, making him the caliph's virtual viceroy over the eastern half of the Caliphate.
Egypt
In Egypt Amr governed as a virtual partner rather than a subordinate of Mu'awiya until his death in 664,
The Arab presence in Egypt was mostly limited to the central garrison at Fustat and the smaller garrison at Alexandria.
Arabia
Although revenge for Uthman's assassination had been the basis upon which Mu'awiya claimed the right to the caliphate, he neither emulated Uthman's empowerment of the Umayyads nor used them to assert his own power.[125][139] With minor exception, members of the clan were not appointed to the wealthy provinces nor the caliph's court, Mu'awiya largely limiting their influence to Medina, the old capital of the Caliphate where most of the Umayyads and the wider Qurayshite former aristocracy remained headquartered.[125][140] The loss of political power left the Umayyads of Medina resentful toward Mu'awiya, who may have become wary of the political ambitions of the much larger Abu al-As branch of the clan—to which Uthman had belonged—under the leadership of Marwan ibn al-Hakam.[141] The caliph attempted to weaken the clan by provoking divisions between them.[142] Among the measures taken was the replacement of Marwan from the governorship of Medina in 668 with another leading Umayyad, Sa'id ibn al-As.[143] The latter was instructed to demolish Marwan's house, but refused and when Marwan was restored in 674, he also refused Mu'awiya's order to demolish Sa'id's home.[143] Mu'awiya dismissed Marwan once more in 678, replacing him with his own nephew, al-Walid ibn Utba.[144] Besides his own clan, Mu'awiya's relations with the Banu Hashim (the clan of the prophet Muhammad and Caliph Ali), the other families of Muhammad's closest companions, the once-prominent Banu Makhzum and the Ansar was generally characterized by hostility or suspicion.[145]
Despite his relocation to Damascus, Mu'awiya remained fond of his original homeland and made known his longing for "the spring in Jeddah [sic], the summer in Ta'if, [and] the winter in Mecca".[146] He purchased several large tracts throughout Arabia and invested considerable sums to develop the lands for agricultural use.[146] According to the Muslim literary tradition, in the plain of Arafat and the barren valley of Mecca he dug numerous wells and canals, constructed dams and dikes to protect the soil from seasonal floods, and built fountains and reservoirs.[146] His efforts saw extensive grain fields and date palm groves to spring up across Mecca's suburbs, which remained in this state until deteriorating during the Abbasid era, which began in 750.[146] In the Yamama in central Arabia, Mu'awiya confiscated from the Banu Hanifa the lands of Hadarim where he employed 4,000 slaves, likely to cultivate its fields.[147] The caliph gained possession of estates in and near Ta'if which, together with the lands of his brothers Anbasa and Utba, formed a considerable cluster of properties.[148] One of the earliest known Arabic inscriptions from Mu'awiya's reign was found at a soil-conservation dam called Sayisad 20 miles east of Ta'if, which credits Mu'awiya for the dam's construction in 677/78 and asks God to give him victory and strength.[149]
War with Byzantium
Mu'awiya possessed more personal experience than any other caliph fighting the Byzantines,
Based on the histories of al-Tabari (d. 923) and Agapius of Hierapolis (d. 941), the first raid of Mu'awiya's caliphate occurred in 662/63, during which his forces inflicted a heavy defeat on a Byzantine army with numerous patricians slain.[152] In the next year a raid led by Busr reached Constantinople and in 664/65, Abd al-Rahman raided Koloneia in northeastern Anatolia.[152] In the late 660s, Mu'awiya's forces attacked Antioch of Pisidia or Antioch of Isauria.[152] According to the Muslim traditional sources, the raids peaked between 668/69 and 669/70.[152] In each of those years there occurred six ground campaigns and a major naval campaign, the first by an Egyptian and Medinese fleet and the second by an Egyptian and Syrian fleet.[155] In addition to these offensives, al-Tabari reports that Mu'awiya's son Yazid led a campaign against Constantinople in 669 and Ibn Abd al-Hakam reports that the Egyptian and Syrian navies led respectively by Uqba ibn Amir and Fadhala ibn Ubayd joined the assault.[156] The modern historian Marek Jankowiak asserts that the multitude of campaigns that were reported during these two years represent coordinated efforts by Mu'awiya to conquer the Byzantine capital.[157] Dismissing the conventional view of a many years-long siege of Constantinople in the 670s, which was based on the history of the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor (d. 818), Jankowiak asserts that Mu'awiya likely ordered the invasion during an opportunity presented by the rebellion of the Byzantine Armenian general Saborios, who formed a pact with the caliph, in spring 667.[158] The caliph dispatched an army under Fadhala ibn Ubayd, but before it could be joined by the Armenians, Saborios died.[158] Mu'awiya then sent reinforcements led by Yazid who led the Arab army's invasion in the summer.[158] An Arab fleet reached the Sea of Marmara by autumn, while Yazid and Fadhala, having raided Chalcedon through the winter, besieged Constantinople in spring 668, but due to famine and disease, lifted the siege in late June.[159] The Arabs continued their campaigns in Constantinople's vicinity before withdrawing to Syria most likely in late 669.[159]
Following the death of Emperor Constans II in July 668, Mu'awiya oversaw an increasingly aggressive policy of naval warfare against the Byzantines.[51] He continued his past efforts to resettle and fortify the Syrian port cities.[51] Due to the reticence of Arab tribesmen to inhabit the coastlands, in 663 Mu'awiya moved Persian civilians and personnel that he had previously settled in the Syrian interior into Acre and Tyre, and transferred elite Persian soldiers from Kufa and Basra to the garrison at Antioch.[31][38] A few years later, Mu'awiya settled Apamea with 5,000 Slavs who had defected from the Byzantines during one of his forces' Anatolian campaigns.[31] In 669, Mu'awiya's navy raided as far as Sicily.[51] In 670, the wide-scale fortification of Alexandria was completed.[51]
While the histories of al-Tabari and al-Baladhuri report that Mu'awiya's forces captured Rhodes in 672–674 and colonized the island for seven years before withdrawing during the reign of Yazid I, the modern historian Clifford Edmund Bosworth casts doubt on these events and holds that the island was only raided by Mu'awiya's lieutenant Junada ibn Abi Umayya al-Azdi in 679/80.[160] Under Emperor Constantine IV (r. 668–685), the Byzantines began a counteroffensive against the Caliphate, first raiding Egypt in 672 or 673,[161] while in winter 673, Mu'awiya's admiral Abd Allah ibn Qays led a large fleet that raided Smyrna and the coasts of Cilicia and Lycia.[162] The Byzantines landed a major victory against an Arab army and fleet led by Sufyan ibn Awf, possibly at Sillyon, in 673/74.[163] The next year, Abd Allah ibn Qays and Fadhala landed in Crete and in 675/76, a Byzantine fleet assaulted Maraqiya, killing the governor of Homs.[161] In 677, 678 or 679 Mu'awiya sued for peace with Constantine IV, possibly as a result of the destruction of his fleet or the Byzantines' deployment of the Mardaites in the Syrian littoral during that time.[164] A thirty-year treaty was concluded, obliging the Caliphate to pay an annual tribute of 3,000 gold coins, 50 horses and 50 slaves, and withdraw their troops from the forward bases they had occupied on the Byzantine coast.[165] Though the Muslims did not achieve any permanent territorial gains in Anatolia during Mu'awiya's career, the frequent raids provided Mu'awiya's Syrian troops with war spoils and tribute, which helped ensure their continued allegiance, and sharpened their combat skills.[166] Moreover, Mu'awiya's prestige was boosted and the Byzantines were precluded from any concerted campaigns against Syria.[167]
Conquest of central North Africa
The expeditions against
The struggle over the succession of Constantine IV drew Byzantine focus away from the African front.
Mu'awiya dismissed Uqba in 673, likely out of concern that he would form an independent power base in the lucrative regions that he conquered.[173] The new Arab province, Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia), remained subordinate to the governor of Egypt, who sent his mawlā (non-Arab, Muslim freedman) Abu al-Muhajir Dinar to replace Uqba, who was arrested and transferred to Mu'awiya's custody in Damascus.[173] Abu al-Muhajir continued the westward campaigns as far as Tlemcen and defeated the Awraba Berber chief Kasila, who subsequently embraced Islam and joined his forces.[173] In 678, a treaty between the Arabs and the Byzantines ceded Byzacena to the Caliphate, while forcing the Arabs to withdraw from the northern parts of the province.[171] After Mu'awiya's death, his successor Yazid reappointed Uqba, Kasila defected and a Byzantine–Berber alliance ended Arab control over Ifriqiya,[173] which was not reestablished until the reign of Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (r. 685–705).
Nomination of Yazid as successor
In a move unprecedented in Islamic politics, Mu'awiya nominated his own son, Yazid, as his successor.
According to Hinds, in addition to Yazid's nobility, age and sound judgement, "most important of all was the fact that he represented a continuation of the link with Kalb and so a continuation of the Kalb-led [tribal] confederacy on which Sufyanid power ultimately rested".[26] In nominating Yazid, the son of the Kalbite Maysun, Mu'awiya bypassed his older son Abd Allah from his Qurayshite wife Fakhita.[188] Though support from the Kalb and the broader Quda'a group was guaranteed, Mu'awiya exhorted Yazid to widen his tribal support base in Syria. As the Qaysites were the predominant element in the northern frontier armies, Mu'awiya's appointment of Yazid to lead the war efforts with Byzantium may have served to foster Qaysite support for his nomination.[189] Mu'awiya's efforts to that end were not entirely successful as reflected in a line by a Qaysite poet: "we will never pay allegiance to the son of a Kalbi woman [i.e. Yazid]".[190][191]
In Medina, Mu'awiya's distant kinsmen Marwan ibn al-Hakam, Sa'id ibn al-As and Ibn Amir accepted Mu'awiya's succession order, albeit disapprovingly.[192] Most opponents of Mu'awiya's order in Iraq and among the Umayyads and Quraysh of the Hejaz were ultimately threatened or bribed into acceptance.[166] The remaining principle opposition emanated from Husayn ibn Ali, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, Abd Allah ibn Umar and Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr, all prominent Medina-based sons of earlier caliphs or close companions of Muhammad.[193] As they possessed the nearest claims to the caliphate, Mu'awiya was determined to obtain their recognition.[194][195] Before his death, Mu'awiya ordered certain measures be taken against them, entrusting these tasks to his loyalists al-Dahhak ibn Qays and Muslim ibn Uqba, according to Awana ibn al-Hakam (d. 764).[196]
Death
Mu'awiya died of an illness in Damascus in Rajab 60
Mu'awiya's grave was a visitation site as late as the 10th century.
Legacy and assessment
“Muʿāwiya […] stands out in the archaeological record as the first Muslim ruler whose name appears on coins” - Jeremy Johns.[204]
Notes
- Himyarites, who had played a prominent role in the Muslim conquest.[13]
- Nu'man ibn Bashir al-Ansari.[30]
- Marwan ibn al-Hakam in his internal decision-making.[49]
- ^ The consensus in the Muslim traditional sources holds that Caliph Ali's Iraqi forces gained the advantage during the battle prompting the Syrians to appeal for a settlement by arbitration. This is contested by a number of non-Muslim historians, including Martin Hinds, according to whom the Syrians were victorious, an assertion supported by Umayyad court poetry.[51]
- ^ The Christian pilgrim Arculf visited Jerusalem between 679 and 681 and noted that a makeshift Muslim prayer house built of beams and clay with a capacity for 3,000 worshipers had been erected on the Temple Mount, while a Jewish midrash confirms that Mu'awiya rebuilt the Temple Mount's walls. The mid-10th-century Arabic chronicler al-Mutahhar ibn Tahir al-Maqdisi explicitly states that Mu'awiya built a mosque on the site.[123]
- ^ The claim that Mu'awiya had Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid poisoned by his Christian doctor Ibn Uthal is found in the medieval Islamic histories of al-Mada'ini, al-Tabari, al-Baladhuri and Mus'ab al-Zubayri, among others[177][178] and is accepted by historian Wilferd Madelung,[179] while historians Martin Hinds and Julius Wellhausen consider Mu'awiya's role in the affair as an allegation of the Muslim traditional sources.[178][180] The Orientalists Michael Jan de Goeje and Henri Lammens dismiss the claim;[181][182] the former called it an "absurdity" and "incredible" that Mu'awiya "would have deprived himself of one of his best men" and the more likely scenario was that Abd al-Rahman had been ill and Mu'awiya attempted to have him treated by Ibn Uthal, who was unsuccessful. De Goeje further doubts the credibility of the reports as they originated in Medina, the home of his Banu Makhzum clan, rather than Homs where Abd al-Rahman had died.[181]
References
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- ^ a b Watt 1960, p. 151. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWatt1960 (help)
- ^ Hawting 2000, pp. 21–22.
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, p. 241.
- ^ Watt 1960, p. 868. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWatt1960 (help)
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 44–45.
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, p. 45.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 60.
- ^ Donner 1981, pp. 133–134.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 154.
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, pp. 60–61.
- ^ a b c d Madelung 1997, p. 61.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 153.
- ^ Sourdel 1965, p. 911.
- ^ Kaegi 1992, pp. 67, 246.
- ^ Kaegi 1992, p. 245.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 86.
- ^ a b Dixon 1978, p. 493.
- ^ Lammens 1960, p. 920.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 106.
- ^ a b Marsham 2013, p. 104.
- ^ Athamina 1994, p. 263.
- ^ Athamina 1994, pp. 262, 265–268.
- ^ a b Kennedy 2007, p. 95.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Hinds 1993, p. 267.
- ^ a b Wellhausen 1927, pp. 55, 132.
- ^ a b Humphreys 2006, p. 61.
- ^ Morony 1987, p. 215.
- ^ a b c Morony 1987, pp. 215–216. Cite error: The named reference "FOOTNOTEMorony1987215–216" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
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- ^ a b c Donner 1981, p. 245.
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- ^ Shahid 2000, p. 191. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFShahid2000 (help)
- ^ Shahid 2000, p. 403. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFShahid2000 (help)
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 82.
- ^ Donner 1981, pp. 248–249.
- ^ a b Kennedy 2001, p. 12.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 248.
- ^ a b c Bosworth 1996, p. 157.
- ^ a b c d Lynch 2016, p. 539.
- ^ a b Lynch 2016, p. 540.
- ^ Lynch 2016, pp. 541–542.
- ^ Kaegi 1992, pp. 184–185.
- ^ a b c d Kaegi 1992, p. 185.
- ^ Bosworth 1996, p. 158.
- ^ a b Bosworth 1996, pp. 157–158.
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, p. 84.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 86–87.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 86–89.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Hinds 1993, p. 265.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 52.
- ^ a b Kennedy 2004, p. 76.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 55–56, 76.
- ^ a b Wellhausen 1927, p. 76.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 184.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 190.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 191, 196.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 196–197.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 199.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 199–200.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 224.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 203.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 204–205.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 222.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 225–226, 229.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 230–231.
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, p. 231.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 232.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 232–233.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 233–234.
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- ^ Kennedy 2004, p. 79.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 245.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 247.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 243.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 254–255.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 255.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 256–257.
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, p. 257.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 258.
- ^ a b c d Kennedy 1998, p. 69.
- ^ a b c Wellhausen 1927, p. 99.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 262–263, 287.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 100.
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, p. 289.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 290–292.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 299.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 300.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 301–303.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 304–305.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 305.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 307.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 102–103.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 104.
- ^ a b Marsham 2013, p. 93.
- ^ Marsham 2013, p. 96.
- ^ Marsham 2013, p. 97.
- ^ Marsham 2013, pp. 87, 89, 101.
- ^ Marsham 2013, pp. 94, 106.
- ^ a b c Wellhausen 1927, p. 131.
- ^ a b c Kennedy 2004, p. 86.
- ^ Crone 1994, p. 44.
- ^ Kennedy 2004, pp. 86–87.
- ^ Hawting 1996, p. 223.
- ^ Kennedy 2001, p. 13.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Hinds 1993, p. 266.
- ^ Crone 1994, p. 45, note 239.
- ^ a b c d e f Kennedy 2004, p. 87.
- ^ Sprengling 1939, p. 182.
- ^ a b Wellhausen 1927, p. 134.
- ^ Hawting 2000, p. 842.
- ^ Foss 2010, p. 83.
- ^ a b Hirschfeld 1987, p. 107.
- ^ Hasson 1982, p. 99.
- ^ Hoyland 1999, p. 159.
- ^ Elad 1999, p. 23.
- ^ Elad 1999, p. 33.
- ^ Elad 1999, pp. 23–24, 33.
- ^ a b Hinds 1993, pp. 266–267.
- ^ a b c d e f Kennedy 2004, p. 83.
- ^ Kennedy 2004, pp. 83–84.
- ^ a b c Kennedy 2004, p. 84.
- ^ Kennedy 2004, pp. 84–85.
- ^ a b c d e Kennedy 2004, p. 85.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 120.
- ^ a b Wellhausen 1927, p. 121.
- ^ a b Hasson 2002, p. 520.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 124.
- ^ Hawting 2000, p. 41.
- ^ a b c Foss 2009, p. 268.
- ^ Foss 2009, p. 269.
- ^ a b Foss 2009, p. 272.
- ^ Foss 2009, pp. 269–270.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 135.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 135–136.
- ^ Bosworth 1991, pp. 621–622.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 136.
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, p. 345, note 90.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 346.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 136–137.
- ^ a b c d Miles 1948, p. 236.
- ^ Dixon 1969, p. 297.
- ^ Miles 1948, p. 238.
- ^ Miles 1948, p. 237.
- ^ Kaegi 1992, p. 247.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 115.
- ^ a b c d e Jankowiak 2013, p. 273.
- ^ Kaegi 1992, pp. 244–245, 247.
- ^ Kaegi 1992, pp. 245, 247.
- ^ Jankowiak 2013, pp. 273–274.
- ^ Jankowiak 2013, pp. 267, 274.
- ^ Jankowiak 2013, p. 290.
- ^ a b c Jankowiak 2013, pp. 303–304.
- ^ a b Jankowiak 2013, pp. 304, 316.
- ^ Bosworth 1996, pp. 159–160.
- ^ a b Jankowiak 2013, p. 316.
- ^ Jankowiak 2013, p. 318.
- ^ Jankowiak 2013, pp. 278–279, 316.
- ^ Stratos 1978, p. 46.
- ^ Lilie 1976, pp. 81–82.
- ^ a b c Kennedy 2004, p. 88.
- ^ Kaegi 1992, pp. 247–248.
- ^ Kennedy 2007, pp. 207–208.
- ^ a b Kaegi 2010, p. 12.
- ^ a b c Christides 2000, p. 789.
- ^ a b Kaegi 2010, p. 13.
- ^ a b Kennedy 2007, p. 209.
- ^ a b c d e f Christides 2000, p. 790.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 146.
- ^ Hinds 1991, pp. 139–140.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 339–340.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 340–341.
- ^ a b Hinds 1991, p. 139.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 340–342.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 137.
- ^ a b De Goeje 1910, p. 28.
- ^ Gibb 1960, p. 85.
- ^ Marsham 2013, p. 90.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 141, 143.
- ^ Morony 1987, p. 183.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 142.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 143–144.
- ^ Hawting 2002, p. 309.
- ^ Marsham 2013, pp. 90–91.
- ^ Marsham 2013, p. 91.
- ^ Crone 1994, p. 45.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 342–343.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 142, 144–145.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 145–146.
- ^ Hawting 2000, p. 43.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 144–145.
- ^ Morony 1987, p. 210, 212–213.
- ^ Morony 1987, p. 210.
- ^ Morony 1987, pp. 209, 213–214.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 139.
- ^ Morony 1987, p. 213.
- ^ Morony 1987, pp. 213–214.
- ^ Grabar 1966, p. 18.
- ^ Whitcomb, p. 22.
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