Adriatic campaign of World War II

Adriatic campaign
Part of Second World War
Adriatic Sea in 1941, during the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia
Date 7 April 1939 – 15 May 1945 (6 years, 1 month, 1 week and 1 day) Location Adriatic Sea: Yugoslavia, Italy, Greece, Albania Result Allied victory
Belligerents
Allies:  United Kingdom  India  Yugoslavia (in 1941) Yugoslav Partisans (from 1941)  Greece  Free France Albanian partisans  Italy (from 8 September 1943)  Australia  New Zealand  South Africa Poland  Canada	Axis:  Italy (until 8 September 1943)  Germany  Salò Republic (from September 1943)  Croatia Slovene collaborationists Montenegro  Albania (until 1944)
Commanders and leaders
Alexander Papagos Josip Broz Tito Enver Hoxha	Domenico Cavagnari Arturo Riccardi Vittorio Tur Prince Ferdinando, Duke of Genoa Luigi Spalice Romolo Polacchini Alexander Löhr Joachim Lietzmann Ante Pavelić Leon Rupnik

The Adriatic campaign of World War II was a minor naval campaign fought during

On 7 April 1939, Mussolini's troops occupied Albania, overthrew

Italian naval forces in the Adriatic, at the outbreak of the war, included the destroyers Carlo Mirabello and Augusto Riboty and the 7th Torpedo Boat Squadron (Angelo Bassini, Nicola Fabrizi, Enrico Cosenz and Giacomo Medici) in Brindisi, the 15th Torpedo Boat Squadron (Palestro, Confienza, San Martino and Solferino) in Venice, the gunboat Ernesto Giovannini in Pola, the 2nd MAS Squadron (four boats) in Pola, the 3rd MAS Squadron (two boats) in Brindisi, and several minelayers (the relatively shallow waters of the Adriatic Sea were particularly favourable for mine warfare). Seven submarines were based in Brindisi: Balilla, Domenico Millelire, Enrico Toti, and Antonio Sciesa (belonging to the 40th Submarine Squadron), Brin (of the 42nd Squadron), Anfitrite (44th Squadron) and Ondina (48th Squadron).

Greco-Italian War

The Greco-Italian War lasted from 28 October 1940 to 30 April 1941 and was part of World War II. Italian forces invaded Greece and made limited gains. At the outbreak of hostilities, the

Greek destroyers carried out three bold but fruitless night-time raids (14–15 November 1940, 15–16 December 1940 and 4–5 January 1941). The main Greek successes came from the submarines, which managed to sink some Italian transports (Greeks also lost a submarine in the process), but the Greek submarine force was too small to be able to seriously hinder the supply lines between Italy and Albania; between 28 October 1940 and 30 April 1941 Italian ships made 3,305 voyages across the Otranto straits, carrying 487,089 military personnel (including 22 field divisions) and 584,392 tons of supplies while losing overall only seven merchant ships and one escort ship.^[3] Although the Regia Marina suffered severe losses in capital ships from the British Royal Navy during the Taranto raid, Italian cruisers and destroyers continued to operate covering the convoys between Italy and Albania. Also, on 28 November, an Italian squadron bombarded Corfu, while on 18 December and 4 March, Italian naval units shelled Greek coastal positions in Albania.

The only surface engagement between the Regia Marina and the Royal Navy occurred on the night of 11–12 November 1940, when a British squadron of three light cruisers and two destroyers attacked an Italian return convoy consisting of four merchant ships escorted by the auxiliary cruiser Ramb III and the torpedo boat Nicola Fabrizi, in the

The Invasion of Yugoslavia (also known as Operation 25) began on 6 April 1941 and ended with the unconditional surrender of the Royal Yugoslav Army on 17 April. The invading

Kotor (Cattaro) was close to the Albanian border and the Italo-Greek front there, but Zara (Zadar), an Italian enclave, was to the north-west of the coast, and to prevent a bridgehead being established, the Beograd, four of the old torpedo boats and six MTBs were despatched to Šibenik, 80 km to the south of Zara, in preparation for an attack. The attack was to be co-ordinated with the 12th "Jadranska" Infantry Division and two Odred (combined regiments) of the Royal Yugoslav Army attacking from the Benkovac area, supported by air attacks by the 81st Bomber Group of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force.

The Yugoslav forces launched their attack on 9 April, but by 13 April Italian forces under General Vittorio Ambrosio had counter-attacked, and were in Benkovac by 14 April.^[4] The naval prong of the attack faltered when Beograd was damaged by near misses from Italian aircraft off Šibenik. With her starboard engine put out of action, she limped to Kotor, escorted by the remainder of the force, for repair.^[5] Italian air raids on Kotor badly damaged the minelayer Kobac, which was beached to prevent sinking.^[6]

The maritime patrol float-planes of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force flew reconnaissance and attack missions during the campaign, as well as providing air cover for mine-laying operations off Zara. Their operations included attacks on the Albanian port of Durrës, as well as strikes against Italian re-supply convoys to Albania. On 9 April, one Dornier Do 22K floatplane notably took on an Italian convoy of 12 steamers with an escort of eight destroyers crossing the Adriatic during the day, attacking single-handed in the face of intense AA fire.^[7] No Italian ships, however, were sunk by Yugoslav forces; an Italian tanker was claimed damaged by a near miss off the Italian coast near Bari. Most of the small Yugoslav fleet (the old cruiser Dalmacija, three destroyers, six torpedo boats, three submarines, eleven minelayers, and several auxiliary ships) was seized by Italian ground forces in its bases at Split and Kotor, and later recommissioned under Italian flag.^[6] Only four Yugoslav ships escaped capture: the submarine Nebojsa and two motor torpedo boats sailed to Allied-controlled ports, while the Zagreb was scuttled to prevent capture.^[6]

Italian occupation and Yugoslav resistance

After the invasion, Italy controlled the entire eastern Adriatic coast through the annexation of much of Dalmatia, the

Naval forces of the Yugoslav Partisans were formed as early as 19 September 1942, when Partisans in Dalmatia formed their first naval unit made of fishing boats, which gradually evolved (especially after the armistice between Italy and the Allies) into a force able to conduct complex amphibious operations. This event is considered to be the foundation of the Yugoslav Navy. At its peak during World War II, the Yugoslav Partisans' Navy commanded nine or 10 armed ships, 30 patrol boats, close to 200 support ships, six coastal batteries, and several Partisan detachments on the islands, around 3,000 men.

After the

After the fall of Greece and Yugoslavia, the complete Italian control of both coasts of the Adriatic, and the distance from British naval and air bases, meant the end of all British air and surface operations in the Adriatic Sea. From the spring of 1941 to September 1943, Royal Navy activity in the Adriatic was thus limited to submarine operations, mainly in the Southern Adriatic; Italian convoys across the Adriatic suffered negligible losses. Between June 1940 and September 1943, only 0,6 % of the personnel and 0,3 % of the supplies shipped from Italy to Albania and Greece were lost; two-thirds of these losses were caused by submarines, mostly British.[8]^[9] Four Royal Navy submarines were lost in the Adriatic, most likely to mines.^[10] British surface ships re-entered the Adriatic after the September 1943 armistice, when the much weaker Kriegsmarine forces remained the only opponent.

German occupation

As a first move (Operation Wolkenbruch) the Germans rushed to occupy the northern Adriatic ports of Trieste, Rijeka and Pula, and established the Operational Zone Adriatic Coast (OZAK), with its headquarters in

S-boats managed to capture a British military mission on the island of Lošinj

.

Gradually the German navy was built up, mostly with former Italian ships found in an advanced phase of construction in the yards of Fiume and Trieste. The strongest naval unit was the 11th Sicherungsflotille. Formed in May 1943 in Trieste as the 11. Küstenschutzflottille, in December 1943 it was designated 11. Sicherungsflottille. It was employed in protecting marine communications in the Adriatic, mostly from partisan naval attacks. On 1 March 1944, the Flotilla was extended and re-designated the 11. Sicherungsdivision.

Occupation of Dalmatia

Until the end of 1943, German forces were advancing into Dalmatia after the capitulation of Italy.

Starting in late 1943, the Allies undertook a major evacuation of civilian population from Dalmatia fleeing the German occupation, and in 1944 moved them to the El Shatt refugee camp in Egypt.

Vis island

By 1944, only the island of

Spitfires of the Balkan Air Force were operating. At the west end of the island was the Port of Komiža, while at the other end was the Port of Vis; these were connected by the only good road running across the plain. Vis

was organized as a great stronghold, held until the end of World War II.

In 1944 Tito's headquarters moved there, and eventually over 1,000 British troops were included in the defence of Vis. British forces on the island were called

No. 43 (Royal Marine) Commando of the 2nd Special Service Brigade, the 2nd Bn. The Highland Light Infantry, and other support troops. Operating from the two ports were several Royal Navy craft. Marshal Tito's forces numbered about 2,000. Vis was functioning as the political and military center of the liberated territories, until the liberation of Belgrade

late in 1944.

A remarkable figure was the Canadian captain

Thomas William Fuller, who in 1944 took command of the 61st MGB flotilla. Operating from Vis, he supplied the partisans by pirating German supply ships. He managed to sink or capture 13 German supply boats, was involved in 105 fire fights and another 30 operations where there was no gunfire. Characteristically for the Yugoslav operations theatre, Fuller attributed a good part of his success to the blood-curdling threats uttered by the Yugoslav partisan who manned the MGB's loud hailer: a 400-ton schooner was captured with its whole cargo and whose crew gave up without a struggle because of the explanation of what would be done to them personally, with knives, if they disobeyed.^[13]

Liberation of Dalmatia

British naval forces in the Middle East operating in the Adriatic Sea were under the command of the Flag Officer Taranto and Adriatic & Liaison with the Italians (F.O.T.A.L.I). All the naval forces were controlled from Taranto and operated in close coordination with the Coastal attack operations conducted by the BAF. The Yugoslavs used the units in the British navy to transport materials and men, but especially to make landings on the islands of Dalmatia to liberate them from German occupation.

During the Vis period, Partisans carried out several seaborne landings on Dalmatian islands with help of Royal Navy and commandos:

• Korčula
• Šolta – Operation Detained
• Hvar – Operation Endowment
• Mljet – Operation Farrier
• Brač – Operation Flounced

The French Navy was involved as well in the first half of 1944, with the 10th Division of Light Cruisers made up of three

Battle off Ist on 29 February 1944 where a German convoy force of two corvettes and two torpedo boats escorting a freighter supported by three minesweepers. The French managed to destroy the German freighter and a corvette in return for no loss before withdrawing.^[14]

In the second half of 1944 the

Fiume. On 14 December, HMS Aldenham became the last British destroyer lost in World Warr II when struck a mine around the island of Škrda.^[15]

To prevent entrance to the North Adriatic in the last two years of World War II, Germany spread thousands of mines and blocked all ports and canals. Many underwater mine fields were situated in the open sea. Mine sweeping was executed by British ships equipped with special mine-sweeping technology. On 5 May 1945, the Shakespeare-class trawler HMS Coriolanus hit a mine while it was sweeping the sea in front of Novigrad.^[16]

Planned Allied landings

The Allies, first under a French initiative of general Maxime Weygand, planned landings in the Thessaloniki area. Although discarded by the British, later Winston Churchill advocated for such a landing option. The so-called Ljubljana gap strategy proved ultimately to be little more than a bluff owing to American refusal and skepticism about the whole operation. Nevertheless, the British command planned several landing operations in Dalmatia and Istria codenamed ARMPIT and a more ambitious plan, GELIGNITE.^[17] Facing American opposition, the British-made attempts were marked by sending an air force called FAIRFAX to the Zadar area, and an artillery attachment called FLOYD FORCE also to Dalmatia, but due to Yugoslav obstruction, such attempts ceased. Nevertheless, the bluff worked since Hitler eventually awaited an allied landing in the northern Adriatic, and diverted important resources to the area. Instead of landings, the allied agreed to provide Tito's land units with aerial and logistical support by setting up the Balkan Air Force.^[18]

The biggest British-led combined operation in the eastern Adriatic codenamed

MTBs shelled the German gun positions and 36 South African Air Force Bristol Beaufighters attacked the naval base installations with RP-3 3 in (76 mm) Rocket Projectiles.^[20] As the attacks proved ineffective in stopping German activities they were repeated also in the first months of 1945.^[21]

Final naval operations

By the end of October 1944, the Germans still had five

MTB torpedoed TA45 in April.^[22]

The very last operations of the German navy involved the evacuation of troops and personnel from Istria and

New Zealand 2nd Division was outnumbered by 20 to one, but at the end the Germans surrendered on 4 May 1945.^[23] Others had already surrendered to the British troops on German ships which arrived from Istria to Ancona

on 2 May. British sources wrote there were about 30 boats, but no exact record is mentioned.

References

1. ^ ^{a b} La Regia Marina tra le due guerre mondiali.
2. ^ ^{a b} Pier Filippo Lupinacci, Vittorio Emanuele Tognelli, La difesa del traffico con l'Albania, la Grecia e l'Egeo, Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, Rome 1965, p. 20.
3. ^ Pier Filippo Lupinacci, Vittorio Emanuele Tognelli, La difesa del traffico con l'Albania, la Grecia e l'Egeo, Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, Rome 1965, pp. 47-49.
4. ^ Fatutta, et al, 1975.
5. ^ Whitely, 2001, p. 312.
6. ^ ^{a b c} Enrico Cernuschi, Le operazioni navali contro la Jugoslavia, 6-18 aprile 1941, on "Storia Militare" n. 242, pp. 20 to 39.
7. ^ Shores, et al, 1987, p. 218.
8. ^ Giorgio Giorgerini, La guerra italiana sul mare. La Marina tra vittoria e sconfitta 1940-1943, p. 575.
9. ^ Pier Filippo Lupinacci, Vittorio Emanuele Tognelli, La difesa del traffico con l'Albania, la Grecia e l'Egeo, Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, Rome 1965, p. 10.
10. ^ Major British & Dominion Warship Losses in World War 2 - Submarines.
11. ^ "Vice Admiral Joachim LIETZMANN". Archived from the original on 2009-10-27. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
12. ^ Operation Freischütz
13. ISBN 9781550022520
    . Retrieved 2009-06-21.
14. ISBN 9781591146513
    . Retrieved 2009-06-21.
15. ^ F. A. Mason, The last destroyer: HMS Aldenham, 1942-44. London: Hale, 1988.
16. ^ "HMS Coriolanus". Archived from the original on 2009-07-13. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
17. ^ Thomas M. Barker, "The Ljubljana Gap Strategy: Alternative to Anvil/Dragoon or Fantasy? Journal of Military History, 56 (January 1992): 57-86
18. ^ Paul J. Freeman, The Cinderella Front: Allied Special Air Operations in Yugoslavia during World War II, Air Command and Staff College, March 1997. URL: www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/acsc/97-0150a.pdf
19. ^ William Klinger, Lussino, dicembre 1944: operazione "Antagonise" Quaderni, vol XX, Centro di ricerche storiche, Rovigno, 2009.
20. ^ "Operation 'Antagonise' by Vernon Copeland". Retrieved 2009-05-05.
21. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-12-25. Retrieved 2023-02-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
22. ISBN 9781591146513
    . Retrieved 2009-06-21.
23. ^ Cody, J. F. "21 Battalion, The Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War 1939–1945, Historical Publications Branch, 1953, Wellington". Retrieved 2009-06-21.